A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
“Implementation Of
PWM Based Firing Scheme For Multilevel Inverter Using
Microcontroller” Submitted in
partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the award of the
Diploma Engineering course
In
Electrical Engineering
By
S. Chandan
Regd. No: F22010002068
6th Sem. ELECTRICAL
Under the esteemed
guidance of
ER. JATIN KUMAR MISHRA
Prof. Dept. Electrical Engineering

DEPT. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SANJAYA MEMORIAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BRUNDABAN BIHAR, ANKUSHPUR-761100
SANJAYA MEMORIAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Diploma Engineering Wing, Ankushpur,
Ganjam
Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi, Affiliated to S.C.T.E.& V.T., Odisha
Recognized by Govt. Odisha

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that S. Chandan Redg No. F22010002068 student of
diploma in the Dept. of Electrical Engineering of Electrical branch has
undergone the project untitled “Implementation Of Pwm Based Firing Scheme
For Multilevel Inverter Using Microcontroller” is a bonafide work has prepared the
report by virtue of his diligence adherence and advices under our supervision and guidance .

The report is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
Diploma of Electrical Engineering during the academic year 2024 – 2025.

The project has not formed the basic for the award of any Diploma , Degree, Associateship ,
Fellowship or any other similar titles.

Signature of the Signature of the Signature of the

External Examiner Internal Examiner Head of the Dept.
.

SANJAYA MEMORIAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Diploma Engineering Wing, Ankushpur,
Ganjam
Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi, Affiliated to S.C.T.E.& V.T.,
Odisha
Recognized by Govt. Odisha

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project entitled “ Implementation of PWM Based
Finning Scheme For Multilevel Inverter using Microcontroller” is
submitted with own sincere effort for the partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of the Diploma of Engineering in Electrical
Engineering. The project has not formed the basis for the award of any
degree, associate ship, fellowship or any other similar titles.

DATE:
PLACE: ANKUSHPUR, BERHAMPUR Signature of Student

SANJAYA MEMORIAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Diploma Engineering Wing, Ankushpur,
Ganjam
Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi, Affiliated to S.C.T.E.& V.T.,
Odisha
Recognized by Govt. Odisha
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It give me immense pleasure to have an opportunity to express my

gratitude to various people directly or indirectly related to my present
project work. I sincerely believe that I was fortunate enough to have come
across a group of human beings, whose mere mode of living can inspire
someone to work wonders. Thanks and deepest sense of gratitude to my
guide for his constant support, unparalleled guidance and limitless
encouragement.

I express my profound and sincere thanks to our Prof. & Guide

ER. JATIN KUMAR MISHRA . They not only encourage me to take on
various trivial serious and inevitable hassles of life.

I would like to express my heartiest gratitude to entire faculty group for

their moral support and cooperation to make their project success.

Also express my thanks to all my friend for their timely suggestions and
encouragements.

DATE: S. Chandan
PLACE: ANKUSHPUR, BERHAMPUR Regd No: F22010002068
 ABSTRACT

The power electronics device which converts DC power to AC power at required

output voltage and frequency level is known as inverter. Inverters can be broadly
classified into single level inverter and multilevel inverter. Multilevel inverter as
compared to single level inverters have advantages like minimum harmonic
distortion, reduced EMI/RFI generation and can operate on several voltage levels.
A multi-stage inverter is being utilized for multipurpose applications, such as
active power filters, static var compensators and machine drives for sinusoidal and
trapezoidal current applications. The drawbacks are the isolated power supplies
required for each one of the stages of the multiconverter and it’s also lot harder
to build, more expensive, harder to control in software.

This project aims at generation of carrier

based PWM scheme using POD strategy through the means of an AT89C51
microcontroller. The salient features are: Firstly, Both the high frequency
triangular carrier wave and the sinusoidal reference signal are being generated in
the microcontroller. The digital to analog converter(DAC0808)is then employed
for converting them into their analog signal forms An opamp based comparator
then compares these two carrier & reference signals to give us the desired
sinusoidal pulse width modulated signal as the required final-output. The PWM
signal thus generated is then used as triggering pulses for the multilevel inverters.
 CONTENTS

Chapter No. Description Page No.

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1-4

1. Project outline

2. Inverters

3. Applications

CHAPTER 2 Pulse Modulation Schemes 5-7

1. Pulse-Amplitude Modulation

2. Pulse Width Modulation

3. Pulse-Position Modulation

4. Pulse Code Modulation

5. Why Pulse Width Modulation

6. Advantages of Pulse Width Modulation

CHAPTER 3 Pulse Width Modulation 8-10

1. Linear Modulation

2. Saw Tooth PWM

3. Regular Sampled PWM

4. Modulation Depth

CHAPTER 4 Single Phase PWM Inverters 11-12

1. Single Pulse Width Modulation

2. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation

3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

Chapter No. Description Page No.

CHAPTER 5 PWM strategies with differing phase relationships 13-21

1. Alternate phase disposition (APOD)

2. Phase Opposition Disposition (POD)

3. Phase Disposition (PD)

Conclusion 22

Reference 23
 CHAPTER #1

INTRODUCTION

Ac loads require constant or adjustable voltages at their input terminals. When such loads are fed
by inverters, it’s essential that output voltage of the inverters is so controlled as to fulfill the
requirements of AC loads. This involves coping with the variation of DC input voltage, for
voltage regulation of inverters and for the constant volts/frequency control requirement. There
are various techniques to vary the inverter gain. The most efficient method of controlling the
gain (and output voltage) is to incorporate pulse-width modulation (PWM) control within the
inverters. The carrier based PWM schemes used for multilevel inverters is one of the most
straight forward methods of describing voltage source modulation realized by the intersection of
a modulating signal (Duty Cycle) with triangular carrier [Link] Alternative PWM
strategies with differing phase relationships are:
 Alternate phase disposition (APOD): Every carrier wave form is in out of phase with its
neighbor carrier by 180 degree.
 Phase Opposition Disposition (POD): All carrier waveforms above zero reference are in
phase and are 180 degree out of phase with those below zero reference.
 Phase Disposition (PD): All carrier waveforms are in phase
1. PROJECT OUTLINE
This project aims at generation of carrier based PWM scheme using POD strategy through the
means of an AT89C51 microcontroller. The salient features are:
 Firstly, both the high-frequency triangular carrier wave & the sinusoidal reference signal
are being generated in the microcontroller.
 A digital to analog converter (DAC 0808) is then employed for converting them into their
analog signal forms.
 An opamp(KF351) based comparator then compares these two carrier & reference signals
to give us the desired sinusoidal pulse width modulated signal as the required final output

Page 1
1.2 INVERTERS
A device that converts DC power into AC power at desired output voltage and frequency is
called an Inverter. Phase controlled converters when operated in the inverter mode are called line
commutated inverters. But line commutated inverters require at the output terminals an existing
AC supply which is used for their commutation. This means that line commutated inverters can’t
function as isolated AC voltage sources or as variable frequency generators with DC power at
the input. Therefore, voltage level, frequency and waveform on the AC side of the line
commutated inverters can’t be changed. On the other hand, force commutated inverters provide
an independent AC output voltage of adjustable voltage and adjustable frequency and have
therefore much wider application.
Inverters can be broadly classified into two types based on their
operation:
 Voltage Source Inverters(VSI)
 Current Source Inverters(CSI)

Voltage Source Inverters is one in which the DC source has small or negligible impedance. In
other words VSI has stiff DC voltage source at its input terminals. A current source inverter is
fed with adjustable current from a DC source of high impedance,i.e;from a stiff DC current
source. In a CSI fed with stiff current source, output current waves are not affected by the load.

From view point of connections of semiconductor devices, inverters are classified as under

 Bridge Inverters
 Series Inverters
 Parallel Inverters

Page 2
1.3 APPLICATIONS

 DC POWER SOURCE UTILIZATION

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an automobile. The
unit provides up to 1.2 Amps of alternating current, or just enough to power two sixty watt light
bulbs.

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells
to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC
equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce
alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution
system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.

Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the
electric grid.

 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES

An uninterruptible power supply is a device which supplies the stored electrical power to the
load in case of raw power cut-off or blackout. One type of UPS uses batteries to store power and
an inverter to supply AC power from the batteries when main power is not available. When main
power is restored, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge the batteries.

It is widely used at domestic and commercial level in countries facing Power outages.

 INDUCTION HEATING

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for use in induction
heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes
the DC power to high frequency AC power.

Page 3
  HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is
transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant
converts the power back to AC.

 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the

frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled
power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the
inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-
frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

 ELECTRIC VEHICLE DRIVES

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motor in some
electric locomotives and diesel-electric locomotives as well as some battery electric vehicles and
hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in inverter
technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications.[2] In vehicles with
regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator)
and stores it in the batteries.

 THE GENERAL CASE

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same
frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or
DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never
exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power
dissipated as waste heat.

Page 4
 CHAPTER #2

PULSE MODULATION SCHEMES

2.1 PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION

In PAM the successive sample values of the analog signal s(t) are used to effect the amplitudes
of a corresponding sequence of pulses of constant duration occurring at the sampling rate. No
quantization of the samples normally occurs (Fig. 1a, b). In principle the pulses may occupy the
entire time between samples, but in most practical systems the pulse duration, known as the duty
cycle, is limited to a fraction of the sampling interval. Such a restriction creates the possibility of
interleaving during one sample interval one or more pulses derived from other PAM systems in a
process known as time-division multiplexing (TDM).

Figure 1(a)Analog signal, s(t). (b) Pulse-amplitude modulation. (c) Pulse-width modulation.
(d) Pulse position modulation

Page 5
2. PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION
In PWM the pulses representing successive sample values of s(t) have constant amplitudes but
vary in time duration in direct proportion to the sample value. The pulse duration can be changed
relative to fixed leading or trailing time edges or a fixed pulse center. To allow for time-division
multiplexing, the maximum pulse duration may be limited to a fraction of the time between
samples (Fig. 1c).
3. PULSE-POSITION MODULATION
PPM encodes the sample values of s(t) by varying the position of a pulse of constant duration
relative to its nominal time of occurrence. As in PAM and PWM, the duration of the pulses is
typically a fraction of the sampling interval. In addition, the maximum time excursion of the
pulses may be limited (Fig. 1d).
4. PULSE-CODE MODULATION
Many modern communication systems are designed to transmit and receive only pulses of two
distinct amplitudes. In these so-called binary digital systems, the analog-to-digital conversion
process is extended by the additional step of coding, in which the amplitude of each pulse
representing a quantized sample of s(t) is converted into a unique sequence of one or more pulses
with just two possible amplitudes. The complete conversion process is known as pulse-code
modulation. Figure 2a shows the example of three successive quantized samples of an analog
signal s(t), in which sampling occurs every T seconds and the pulse representing the sample is
limited to T/2 seconds. Assuming that the number of quantization levels is limited to 8, each
level can be represented by a unique sequence of three two-valued pulses

Figure 2(a) Three successive quantized samples of an analog

signal. (b) With pulses of amplitude V or 0. (c) With pulses of amplitude V or –V

Page 6
PCM enjoys many important advantages over other forms of pulse modulation due to the fact
that information is represented by a two-state variable. First, the design parameters of a PCM
transmission system depend critically on the bandwidth of the original signal s(t) and the degree
of fidelity required at the point of reconstruction, but are otherwise largely independent of the
information content of s(t). This fact creates the possibility of deploying generic transmission
systems suitable for many types of information. Second, the detection of the state of a two-state
variable in a noisy environment is inherently simpler than the precise measurement of the
amplitude, duration, or position of a pulse in which these quantities are not constrained. Third,
the binary pulses propagating along a medium can be intercepted and decoded at a point where
the accumulated distortion and attenuation are sufficiently low to assure high detection accuracy.
New pulses can then be generated and transmitted to the next such decoding point. This so-called
process of repeatering significantly reduces the propagation of distortion and leads to a quality of
transmission that is largely independent of distance.
5. WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION?
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its duty
cycle, to either convey information over a communications channel or control the amount of
power sent to a load.
6. ADVANTAGES OF PWM
Using pulse width modulation has several advantages over analog control.
[Link] entire control circuit can be digital, eliminating the need for digital-to-analog
converters.
II. Using digital control lines will reduce the susceptibility of your circuit to
interference.
III. Finally, motors may be able to operate at lower speeds if you control them with
PWM.
When you use an analog current to control a motor, it will not produce significant torque
at low speeds.
IV. The output voltage control can be obtained without any additional components.
[Link] this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized Along with
its output voltage control.
VI. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily the higher order harmonics can be
minimized.

Page 7
 CHAPTER #3

PULSE WIDTH MODUALTION

There are many forms of modulation used for communicating information. When a high
frequency signal has amplitude varied in response to a lower frequency signal we have AM
(amplitude modulation). When the signal frequency is varied in response to the modulating
signal we have FM (frequency modulation. These signals are used for radio modulation because
the high frequency carrier signal is needs for efficient radiation of the signal. When
communication by pulses was introduced, the amplitude, frequency and pulse width become
possible modulation options. In many power electronic converters where the output voltage can
be one of two values the only option is modulation of average conduction time.
Figure

Figure 3

Page 8
3.1. LINEAR MODULATION
The simplest modulation to interpret is where the average ON time of the pulses varies
proportionally with the modulating signal. The advantage of linear processing for this application
lies in the ease of de-modulation. The modulating signal can be recovered from the PWM by low
pass filtering. For a single low frequency sine wave as modulating signal modulating the width
of a fixed frequency (fs) pulse train the spectra is as shown in Fig 2. Clearly a low pass filter can
extract the modulating component fm.

Figure 4

3.2. SAW TOOTH PWM

The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by comparison with a linear
slope waveform such as a saw tooth. As seen in Fig 2 the output signal goes high when the sine
wave is higher than the saw tooth. This is implemented using a comparator whose output voltage
goes to logic HIGH when ne input is greater than the other. Other signals with straight edges can
be used for modulation a rising ramp carrier will generate

Figure 5

Page 9
3.3 REGULAR SAMPLED PWM
The scheme illustrated above generates a switching edge at the instant of crossing of the sine
wave and the triangle. This is an easy scheme to implement using analog electronics but suffers
the imprecision and drifts of all analog computation as well as having difficulties of generating
multiple edges when the signal has even a small added noise. Many modulators are now
implemented digitally but there is difficulty is computing the precise intercept of the modulating
wave and the carrier. Regular sampled PWM makes the width of the pulse proportional to the
value of the modulating signal at the beginning of the carrier period. In Fig 5 the intercept of the
sample values with the triangle determine the edges of the Pulses. For a saw tooth wave of
frequency fs the samples are at 2fs.

Figure 6 (Regular sampled PWM)

3.4. MODULATION DEPTH

For a single phase inverter modulated by a sine-sawtooth comparison, if we compare a sine wave
of magnitude from -2 to +2 with a triangle from -1 to +1 the linear relation between the input
signal and the average output signal will be lost. Once the sine wave reaches the peak of the
triangle the pulses will be of maximum width and the modulation will then saturate. The
Modulation depth is the ratio of the current signal to the case when saturation is just starting.
Thus sine wave of peak 1.2 compared with a triangle with peak 2.0 will have a modulation depth

Figure 7

Page 10
 CHAPTER #4

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTERS

In many industrial applications, it’s often required to control the output voltage of inverters for
the following reasons

 To cope with the variations of DC input voltage

 For voltage regulation of inverters

 For the constant volts/frequency control requirement

There are various techniques to vary the inverter gain. The most efficient method of
controlling the gain (and output voltage) is to incorporate pulse width modulation (PWM)
control within the inverters. The commonly used techniques are

I. Single Pulse width Modulation

II. Multiple Pulse width Modulation

III. Sinusoidal Pulse width Modulation

IV. Trapezoidal Pulse width Modulation

V. Stair case Pulse width Modulation

In PWM inverters, forced commutation is essential. The PWM techniques listed above differ
from each other in the harmonic content in their respective output [Link],choice of a
particular PWM technique depends upon the permissible harmonic content in the inverter output
voltage. Industrial applications PWM inverter is supplied from a diode bridge rectifier and an LC
filter. The inverter topology remains the same for a single phase inverter and for a three phase
inverter. But now the devices are now switched ON and OFF several times within each half
cycle to control the output voltage which has low harmonic content.

Page 11
1. SINGLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

In this control, there’s only one pulse per half cycle and the width of the pulse is varied to control
the inverter output. The gating signals are generated by comparing a rectangular reference signal
of the amplitude Ar with triangular carrier wave of amplitude Ac,the frequency of the carrier
wave determines the fundamental frequency of output voltage. By varying Ar from 0 to Ac,the
pulse width can be varied from 0 to 100 percent. The ratio of Ar to Ac is the control variable and
defined as the modulation index.

2. MULTIPLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in each half cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signals for turning ON and OFF transistors by comparing a
reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The frequency Fc, determines the number of
pulses per half cycle. The modulation index controls the output voltage. This type of modulation
is also known as uniform pulse width modulation (UPWM).

3. SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Instead of ,maintaining the width of all pulses of same as in case of multiple pulse width
modulation, the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of a sine wave
evaluated at the centre of the same pulse. The distortion factor and lower order harmonics are
reduced significantly. The gating signals are generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference
signal with a triangular carrier wave of frequency [Link] frequency of reference signal Fr
,determines the inverter output frequency and its peak amplitude Ar,controls the modulation
index M,and rms output voltage [Link] number of pulses per half cycle depends on carrier
frequency .

Page 12
 CHAPTER #5

PWM STRATEGIES WITH DIFFERING PHASE

RELATIONSHIPS

This section of the chapter extends the principles of carrier-based PWM that are used for
multilevel inverter. One of the most straightforward methods of describing voltage-source
modulation is to illustrate the intersection of a modulating signal (duty cycle) with triangle
waveforms. There are three alternative PWM strategies with differing phase relationships:
 Alternate phase disposition (APOD) – every carrier waveform is in out of phase with its
neighbor carrier by 180.
 Phase opposition disposition (POD) – All carrier waveforms above zero reference are in
phase and are 180 degree out of phase with those below zero.
 Phase disposition (PD)- All carrier waveforms are in phase

1. ALTERNATE PHASE DISPOSITION (APOD):

In case of alternate phase disposition (APOD) modulation, every carrier waveform is in out of
phase with its neighbor carrier by 180 degree. Since APOD and POD schemes in case of three-
level inverter are the same, a five level inverter is considered to discuss about the APOD scheme.
The rules for APOD method, when the number of level N = 5, are
 The N – 1 = 4 carrier waveforms are arranged so that every carrier waveform is in out of
phase with its neighbor carrier by 180
 The converter switches to + Vdc / 2 when the reference is greater than all the carrier
waveforms.
 The converter switches to Vdc / 4 when the reference is less than the uppermost carrier
waveform and greater than all other carriers.
 The converter switches to 0 when the reference is less than the two uppermost carrier
waveform and greater than two lowermost carriers.
 The converter switches to - Vdc / 4 when the reference is greater than the lowermost
carrier waveform and lesser than all other carriers.

Page 13
Figure 8 (Switching pattern produced using the APOD carrier-based PWM scheme for a
five-level inverter: (a) Four triangles and the modulation signal (b) S1ap (c) S2ap (d) S3ap
(e) S4ap. )

Page 14
Figure 9.(Simulation of carrier-based PWM scheme using APOD for a five-level inverter. I.
Modulation signal and carrier waveforms (II) Phase “a” output voltage. )
Figure . Demonstrates the APOD scheme for a five-level inverter. The figure displays the
switching pattern generated by the comparison of the modulation signals with the four
carrier waveforms. Figure 9 Shows the output voltage waveform of phase “a” and it is clear
the waveform has five steps.

Page 15
5.2 PHASE OPPOSITION DISPOSITION (POD):

For phase opposition disposition (POD) modulation all carrier waveforms above zero reference
are in phase and are 1800 out of phase with those below zero.
The rules for the phase opposition disposition method, when the number of level N = 3 are

•The N –1 = 2 carrier waveforms are arranged so that all carrier waveforms above zero are in
phase and are 1800 out of phase with those below zero.

•The converter is switched to + Vdc / 2 when the reference is greater than both carrier
waveforms.

•The converter is switched to zero when the reference is greater than the lower carrier waveform
but less than the upper carrier waveform.

• The converter is switched to - Vdc / 2 when the reference is less than both carrier waveforms.

As seen from Figure, the figure illustrates the switching functions produced by POD carrier

based PWM scheme. In the PWM scheme there are two triangles, upper triangle magnitude from

1 to 0 and the lower triangle from 0 to –1 and these two triangle waveforms are in out of phase.

When the modulation signal is greater than both the carrier waveforms, S1ap and S2ap are turned

on and the converter switches to positive node voltage and when the reference is less than the

upper carrier waveform but greater than the lower carrier, S2ap and S1an are turned on and the

converter switches to neutral point. When the reference is lower than both carrier waveforms,

S1an and S2an are turned on and the converter switches to negative node voltage.

Page 16
Figure 10.(Switching pattern produced using the POD carrier-based PWM scheme: (a) two
triangles and the modulation signal (b) S1ap (c) S2ap (d) S1an (e) S2an

Page 17
Figure 11.(Simulation of carrier-based PWM scheme using POD. I. Modulation signal and
out of phase carrier waveforms (II) Phase “a” output voltage)
Also shows the implementation of the phase disposition (PD) scheme. Shows the carriers
waveforms are displaced out of phase and compared with the sinusoidal modulation signal.
Figure . (II) Shows the phase “a” output voltage waveform.

Page 18
5.3 PHASE DISPOSITION (PD):
In the present work, in the carrier-based implementation the phase disposition PWM scheme is
used.
Figure demonstrates the sine-triangle method for a three-level inverter. Therein, the a-phase
modulation signal is compared with two (n-1 in general) triangle waveforms. The rules for the
phase disposition method, when the number of level N = 3, are
• The N –1 = 2 carrier waveforms are arranged so that every carrier is in phase.
•The converter is switched to + Vdc / 2 when the reference is greater than both carrier
waveforms.
• The converter is switched to zero when the reference is greater than the lower carrier waveform
but less than the upper carrier waveform.
• The converter is switched to - Vdc / 2 when the reference is less than both carrier waveforms.
In the carrier-based implementation at every instant of time the modulation signals are compared
with the carrier and depending on which is greater, the definition of the switching pulses is
generated.
As seen from Figure, the figure illustrates the switching pattern produced by the carrier-based
PWM scheme. In the PWM scheme there are two triangles, the upper triangle ranges from 1 to 0
and the lower triangle ranges from 0 to –1. In the similar way for an N –level inverter, the (N-1)
triangles are used and each has a peak-to-peak value of 2/(N-1). Hence the upper most triangle
magnitude varies from 1 to (1-2/(N-1)), second carrier waveform from (1-4/(N-1)), and the
bottom most triangle varies from (2-2/(N-1)) to –1.
In Figure , the switching pattern of each device can be seen. It is clear from the figure that during
the positive cycle of the modulation signal, when the modulation is greater than Triangle 1 and
Triangle 2, then S1ap and S2ap are turned on and also during the positive cycle S2ap is
completely turned on. When S1ap and S2ap are turned on the converter switches to the + Vdc / 2
and when S1an and S2ap are on, the converter switches to zero and hence during the positive
cycle S2ap is completely turned on and S1ap and S1an will be turning on and off and hence the
converter switches from + Vdc / 2 to 0. During the negative half cycle of the modulation signal
the converter switches from 0 to -Vdc / 2. The phase voltage equations for star-connected,
balanced three-phase loads expressed in terms of the existence functions and input nodal voltage.

Page 19
Figure 12(Switching pattern produced using the PD carrier-based PWM scheme: (a) two
triangles and the modulation signal (b) S1ap (c) S2ap (d) S1an (e) S2an.)

Page 20
Figure 13(Simulation of carrier-based PWM scheme using the phase disposition (PD).
I. Modulation signal and in-phase carrier waveforms (II) Phase “a” output voltage.)
Figure . Shows the implementation of the phase disposition (PD) scheme.
Figure 13 (I)shows that two carriers waveforms are displaced in phase and
compared with
the sinusoidal modulation signal. Figure . (II) Shows the phase “a” output voltage
waveform.

Page 21
 CONCLUSION

The background study regarding the various aspects of the PWM firing scheme was studied. The
carrier based PWM scheme using the POD strategy based on AT89C51 was simulated with the
help of “TOP VIEW SIMULATOR (1.2H)”. Hardware involving the power circuit of AT89C51
was fabricated. Power circuit of AT89C51 was interfaced with DAC0808 for the generation of
analog signal. The analog signals (sinusoidal and triangular) so generated were compared using a
comparator (KF351) thereby generating PWM waves which is fed as triggering pulses to the
inverters.

It’s to be noted that in this entire experiment DAC 0808, an 8 bit D/A
converter is used. Thus the resolution of the waves generated is not impeccable. Thus, it’s
recommended to use 12 or 16 bit D/A converter to get better wave forms.

Page 22
 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 P.S. Bhimbra, Power Electronics.

2 M Rashid, Power Electronics.

3Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice Gillispie Mazidi, “The 8051 Microcontroller and
Embedded Systems, Pearson Prentice Hall Publication”.

4L Li, D Crazkowski, P Pillay, Y. Liu “Multilevel Selective Harmonic Elimination PWM

Technique in Series Connected Voltage Inverters”, NY USA.

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