Animal Classification
Classification
• Classification, in biology, is identification, naming, and
grouping of organisms into a formal system based on
similarities such as internal and external anatomy,
physiological functions, genetic makeup, or evolutionary
history.
• With an estimated 10 million to 13 million species on
Earth, the diversity of life is immense.
• Determining an underlying order in the complex web of
life is a difficult undertaking that encompasses advanced
scientific methods as well as fundamental philosophical
issues about how to view the living world.
Classification
• Classification determines methods for organizing the
diversity of life on Earth.
• It is a dynamic process that reflects the very nature
of organisms, which are subject to modification and
change over many, many generations in the process
of evolution.
• Since life first appeared on Earth 3.5 billion years
ago, many new types of organisms have evolved.
• Many of these organisms have become extinct, while
some have developed into the present fauna and
flora of the world.
• Extinction and diversification continue nonstop, and
scientists are frequently encountering fluctuations
that may affect the way an organism is classified.
Classification
• Taxonomy is part of a larger division of biology known as
systematics.
• Determination of phylogeny is a goal of systematics.
• This is done by the construction of phylogenetic trees,
which in a sense represent evolutionary hypotheses and
attempts to define monophyletic groups.
• To build these trees, we must have data, which comes from
the characteristics used in classification.
• There are several methods of classification: traditional,
phentic, and cladistic.
• They differ in how they value certain characters.
Classifying organisms
• When classifying organisms, scientists study a wide
range of features, including those visible to the naked
eye, those detectable only under a microscope, and
those that can be determined only by chemical tests.
• Scientists compare the external shapes and sizes of
organisms as well as the anatomy and function of
internal organs and organ systems, such as the digestive
or reproductive systems.
• Biochemists study and compare the molecular
interactions within an organism that enable it to grow,
make and store energy, and reproduce.
Classifying organisms
• The early stages of an organism’s development, or
embryology, as well as an organism’s behavior, or
ethology, are also useful in grouping organisms.
• Even the role an organism plays in its habitat can
help place it in a particular group.
• Scientists use the fossil record to learn how
certain animals have changed and evolved
through Earth’s history, which may provide clues
for classification.
Classification Methods
• Grouping organisms according to shared characteristics
is not a simple task, and scientists often disagree about
the best way to classify organisms.
• Some think that organisms should be grouped according
to differences or similarities in the way they look or act.
• Other scientists argue that classification should be
based on characteristics derived from a shared
evolution.
• Conflicting philosophies about classification have
resulted in a variety of classification methods, each with
their own set of assumptions, techniques, and results.
• Phenetic: physical attributes, numerical
taxonomy
• Cladistic (Phylogenetic): evolutionary
relationships
• Evolutionary: synthesis of the two
Characters used
Phenetic system of classification
• In Biology, phenetics (Greek: phainein - to
appear ) , also known as taximatrix is an
attempt to classify organisms based on
overall similarity , usually in morphology or
other observable traits , regardless of their
phylogeny or evolutionary relation.
Phenetic Classification
• Phenetics challenged the prevailing view that classification should be
based on comparisons between a limited number of characters that
taxonomists believed to be important for one reason or another.
• Phenetics argued that classification should encompass as many
variable characters as possible.
• Phenetics is a noval phylogenetic method.
• Phenetic classification, applies numerical taxonomy to arranging
groups into genera and higher ranks.
• The analysis of various types of taxonomic data by mathematical or
computerized methods is called numerical taxonomy or taximetrics.
• Phenetics is a process by which taxa are clustered together based on
the number of their similarities (or differences, depending on the
numerical coefficient employed).
Steps
1) identify taxa to be
considered (OTUs,
Operational taxonomic
units)
2) choose characters
(independent, “unit”)
3) construct character matrix
for each taxon:
4) use mathematical formula
to describe degree of
similarity for each taxon: e.g.
simple matching coefficient
• use clustering technique
to produce a Phenogram
e.g. UPGMA
(Unweighted Pair Group
Method with Arithmetic
Averaging) or Neighbour
- joining
• Unweighted / Equal
weighting = all
characters given equal
consideration.
Unweighting is a type of
weighting!
Problems of Phenetic Classification
• Phenetic classifications are plagued by
problems of convergence and parallelism
but are useful in their attempt to objectify
the classification process.
• Practical difficulties: Laborious, absence
of large number of characters,
repeatability
• Problem in the choice of characters
• Problems in choice of computational
methods
• Problem in conversion of phenogram into
classification
Cladistic Classification
• Cladistics Greek: klados = branch
• Join spp. into truly MONOPHYLETIC groups
(avoid pitfalls of phyletic approach)
• Hennig (1979) - key to monophyletic groups:
Unique Synapomorphies: shared, derived
characters
• Focus on CLADOGENESIS, ignores anagenesis
Principles of Cladistics
• Hypothesized relationships are typically based
on shared derived characteristics
(synapomorphies) that can be traced to the
most recent common ancestor and are not
present in more distant groups and ancestors.
• A key feature of a clade is that a common
ancestor and all its descendants are part of
the clade. Importantly, all descendants stay in
their overarching ancestral clade.
• Ancestral traits
Criteria to determine
primitiveness
• Presence in fossils
• Commonness across taxa
• Early appearance in phylogeny
• Presence in outgroup
Cladograms
1) select group of organisms
2) Determine characters & states
3)For each character, classify ancestral & derived
- comparison to outgroup
- traits shared with outgroup = ancestral
4) Group by shared derived characters
(synapomorphies)
5) Choose most parsimonious tree (fewest
evolutionary transitions)
• Cladists group organisms based on the
presence of shared derived characters, not the
overall similarity of potential group members.
Problem of Cladistic Analysis and
Classification
• Choice of character: Homoplasy due to
convergence, parallelism and reversals
• Polytomy
• Cladogram represent characters not taxa
• Anagensis not considered
• Absence of theory of ranking
• Neglect of ancestor – Descendent relationship
Evolutionary Classification
• Evolutionary taxonomy, evolutionary
systematics or Darwinian classification is a
branch of biological classification that seeks
to classify organisms using a combination of
phylogenetic relationship (shared descent),
progenitor-descendant relationship (serial
descent), and degree of evolutionary change.
Evolutionary Classification
• The goal of phylogenetic systematics,
or evolutionary classification, is to group
species into larger categories that reflect lines
of evolutionary descent, rather than overall
similarities and differences.
Evolutionary Classification
• Steps
• 1) sorting of taxa in to a provisional
classification that reflect appearance of taxa
(Phylogram).
• 2) Testation of provisional taxa for monophyly
Problems of Evolutionary Classification
• Convergent evolution
• Lack of fossil
• Strict evolutionary classification
Difference between Cladistics and Evolutionary Classification
Cladistics Evolutionary
Analysis
Aim Construction of a cladogram Construction of a Phylogram
Parsimony Important criteria of best Testing for homoplasy by various
Cladogram criteria
Major role of Synapomorphies To recognize branching point To discover and reject convergent
polyphyly
Classification
Delimitation of taxa By holophyly BY monophyly and shared
characters
Minimum number of character A single synapomorphy As many characters as possible
needed
Ranking of sister group Same categorical rank Different rank if they differ by
sufficient autopomorphies
Kinds of character used Only synapomorphies All homologies
Basis of classification Branching only Branching and evolutionary
divergence
Stem group Always with crown group Sometime with sister group
Diagnosis of taxa Only monothetic admissible Polythtic also admissible
Categorical ranking of taxa No method available. Hence By degree of differences
arbitrary