Water Treatment

and Waste
Management
Code: HWRE-5181
 Outline
Introduction to Water Quality
Water Quality Parameters
WQ Examination and Potable Water
Standards
Preliminary Water Treatment Process
Sedimentation
Coagulation and Flocculation
Filtration
Disinfection
General overview of wastewater
collection system
Conventional wastewater treatment
Introduction to Water Quality
 Water quality refers to the chemical, physical,
biological, and characteristics of water.
 It is a measure of the condition of water
relative to the requirements of biotic species
and or to any human need.
 It is not a simple thing to say
 “that water is good” or
 “that water is bad”
 Scientific measurements are used to define
water quality.
Introduction to Water Quality
 Determination of water quality is typically made
relative to the purpose of the water:
◦ is it for drinking?
◦ is it to wash a car?
◦ is it to mix a concrete?
◦ or for some other purpose?
 Poor water quality can pose a health risk for
people, ecosystems.
 Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and
contains number of impurities in varying amounts.
Introduction to Water Quality
 Before supplying to the public, raw water should
be treated and purified for the safety of:
◦ public health
◦ economy and
◦ protection of various industrial processes
 The water work engineer has to thoroughly
check, analyze and do the treatment of the raw
water obtained from the sources, before its
distribution.
 The water supplied to the public should be
strictly according to the standards(WHO & EPA)
Introduction to Water Quality
 Important requirements of water for domestic use:
1. Colorless and sparkling clear
2. Tasteless and free from odor
3. Reasonably soft (Ca2+, Mg2+
4. Free from disease producing bacteria or organisms
5. Free from objectionable dissolved gases such as H 2S

6. Have sufficient quantity of dissolved oxygen (DO)

7. Free from harmful salts
8. Free from objectionable minerals like Iron, Manganese,
Lead, Arsenic and other poisonous minerals
9. Reasonably free from phenolic compounds, Cl 2, fluorides,
iodine
[Link] lead to scale formation and should be non-corrosive
Introduction to Water Quality
 Common impurities in water
 Impurities in water are classified into three
heads:
i. Suspended impurities
◦ Are those impurities which normally remains in
suspension
◦ They make water turbid
◦ Sources:
 Living organisms: bacteria, algae, protozoa
 Inorganic: clay, silt, sand
 Organic: plant and animal particles, vegetable,
industrial and domestic by-products
Introduction to Water Quality
ii. Dissolved impurities
◦ Are not visible but they are large in quantity since
water is a good solvent.
◦ They cause bad taste, hardness, salinity and
alkalinity.
◦ Sometimes they are harmful.
◦ Sources:
a. Salt
 Ca and Mg: bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates and chlorides
 Na: bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and fluorides
b. Metals and compounds: Iron oxide, Mn, Pb, As, Br,
Nitrates
c. Vegetable dyes
d. Gases: O , CO , H S
Introduction to Water Quality
[Link] impurities
◦ Are electrically charged impurities.
◦ Usually very small in size and remains in
constant motion and don’t settle.
◦ Sources:
Amino acids, organic waste products, silica, Iron oxides,
manganese oxides
Water Quality Parameters

Water
Quality
Parameters

Physical Chemical Biological

Physical Parameters
 Characteristics of water that respond to the
sense of sight, touch, or smell.
◦ Turbidity
◦ Color
◦ Taste and odor
◦ Temperature
Turbidity
 is a measure of resistance
of water to the passage of
light through it.
 is caused due to presence
of suspended and colloidal
solids.

 Sources (s):
i. Inorganic compounds: clay,
silt, sand
ii. Organic compounds: plant
fiber, human waste
Turbidity
 The amount and character of turbidity depend
upon:
◦ The type of soil (land use) over which the water
has run
◦ Point source pollution and effluent
◦ Resuspension (Dredging projects)
◦ The velocity of the water (Groundwater is normally
clear)

 Can vary seasonally according to:

◦ biological activity in the water
◦ surface run-off
carrying soil particles
Turbidity
 When the water becomes quite (Stop movement):
◦ the heavier and larger suspended particles settle
quickly
◦ the lighter and more finely divided ones settle very
slowly
◦ very finely divided clay may require months of complete
quiescence for settlement
 Low inorganic turbidity (silt and clay) may result in a
relatively high organic turbidity.
◦ low inorganic turbidity permits sunlight to penetrate
freely into the water and stimulates a heavier growth of
algae, photoplankton
Turbidity
 Effects (s):
◦ Aesthetics(Aesthetically bad)
◦ Adsorption point/center for chemical and
micro-organism
◦ Health aspect
 Turbidity is measured by:
1. Turbidity rod or Tape test
tub
2. Jacksons Turbid meter
e
3. Bali’s Turbid meter
4. Nephelometer
 measured photometrically by determining
the percentage of light of a given
intensity that is either absorbed or
scattered.
Turbidity
 Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million) or (mg/l).
 Drinking water should not have turbidity exceed 10
NTU.
 The maximum times that samples may be held before
analysis --- 48 hrs. (2 days)
 Turbidity test is useful to determine:
◦ the detention time in settling for raw water and
◦ the dosage of coagulants (Aluminum Sulphate)required
 Sedimentation with or without chemical coagulation
and filtration are used to remove turbidity.
Color
 is caused by materials in solution or colloidal
conditions.
 should be distinguished from an apparent (not
true) color (which is due to turbidity).
 True color is caused by dyes derived from
decomposing vegetation.
 Colored water:
◦ is undesirable because of consumer objections
◦ may discolor clothing and adversely affect
industrial processes
Color
 Before testing the color of water:
◦ total suspended solids should be removed by
centrifugal force in a special apparatus
 The color produced by one milligram of
platinum in a liter of water has been fixed as
the unit of color.
 The permissible color for domestic water is 20
 ppm maximum
The on platinum cobalt
times scale.
that
samples may be held
before analysis --- 48 hrs
Temperature
 Temperature increase may affect the potability of
water
 Temperature above 15°C is objectionable to drinking
water , it may affect metabolism reaction in side.
 The maximum times that samples may be held before
analysis --- immediately after sampling
 Effect (s):
i. disturb biological activities
ii. most chemical reactions that occur in natural water
systems
iii. has pronounced effect on the solubility of gases in water
Tastes and Odor
 Substances that produce an odor in water will
almost in variably impart a taste as well.
 The converse is not true, as there are many
mineral substances that produce taste but no
odor.
 Source (s):
i. Inorganic compounds: minerals, metals, salts
ii. Organic compound: petroleum and/or degradation of
organic matter
 Inorganic substances are more likely to produce
tastes unaccompanied by odor.
 Organic material is likely to produce both taste
and odor.
Tastes and Odor
 Alkaline material imports a bitter taste to water
 Metallic salts may give salty or bitter taste
 A multitude of organic chemicals may cause
taste & odor problems
 Biological decomposition of organics may also
result in taste and odor producing liquids and
gases in water.
 Effect(s):
i. aesthetic
ii. health problems
Chemical Parameters
 Electrical conductivity
 Total Solids
 Alkalinity
 pH
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 Oxygen Demand (BOD, COD, TOC, TOD)
 Nitrogen
 Hardness
 Chloride
 Fluoride
 Metals and other chemical substances
Total Solids
 Forms of solids present in water:

Suspended remain floating in

solids water

remain dissolved
Dissolved solids in water
Solids
remaining either
Colloidal solids in solution or in
suspension
settles out, if water
is allowed to
Settleable remain
solids undisturbed for a
period of 14
minutes
Total Solids
 Determination of suspended solids are
important as pollutants and pathogens are
carried on the surface of particles.
 The quantity of suspended solids is determined
by:
◦ filtering the sample of water through fine filter
(0.45m) , drying and weighing

Filter paper
Total Solids
 The quantity of dissolved & colloidal solids is
determined by:
◦ evaporating the filtered water obtained from the
suspended solid test and weighing the residue ….
(phase change)
 The total solids in a water sample can be
directly determined by:
◦ evaporating the water (@105°C oven dry for 24 hrs)
and weighing the residue
oven
Total Solids
 When the residue of total solids is fused in a
muffle furnace (@550°C for 1 hour …)
◦ the organic solids will decompose where as only
inorganic solids will remain
◦ the inorganic solids can be determined by weighing
 Organic solids = total solids – inorganic
solids
 Effect (s):
◦ cause taste, color and odor problems
◦ health aspect
◦ High amount of TS decrease passage of light- affect
aquatic plants
◦ high levels of TSS will increase
water temp & decrease DO levels muffle furnace
Alkalinity
 The quantity of ions in water to neutralize acid or
a measure of water strength to neutralize acid.
 Main constituents are:

◦ carbonate (CO32-)

◦ bicarbonate (HCO3-)

◦ hydroxide (OH-)

 Effects:
◦ Non-pleasant taste

◦ Reaction between alkaline constituent and cation (+

ion: Ca2+, Mg2+, … ) produces precipitation in pipe
pH
 is a measure of the concentration of free
hydrogen ion in water.
 It expresses the molar concentration of the
hydrogen ion as its negative logarithm.
◦ pH = -log [H+]
 pH + pOH = 14
 In neutral solutions at equilibrium [OH] = [H]
◦ pH = pOH = 7
 Low pH is associated with high acidity, high pH
with caustic alkalinity.
pH
 The maximum times that samples may be held
before analysis --- immediately after sampling
 pH is measured by using a pH meter
 Effects:
◦ water treatment process
◦ a number of waste treatment processes (on the rate of
microbial growth)
◦ Corrosion
◦ pH below 6.5 metal corrosion
can become a problem
◦ pH above 8.5 (alkaline) scaling of
pipes may occur
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
 What is Dissolved Oxygen?
◦ DO refers to the level of free, non-compound
oxygen present in water or other liquids.
◦ Non-compound oxygen, or free oxygen (O2), is
oxygen that is not bonded to any other
◦ element.
DO is the presence of these
free O2 molecules within
water.
◦ The bonded oxygen molecule
in water (H2O) is in a
compound and does not
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 The oxygen content of natural waters varies with:
◦ Temperature (Inverse relation)
◦ Salinity (Inverse relation)
◦ Turbulence (water movement and mixing)
◦ Photosynthetic activity of algae and plants
◦ Respiration by aquatic plants and animals
◦ Atmospheric pressure
 In fresh-waters dissolved oxygen (DO) at sea level
ranges from 15 mg/l @ 0°C to 8 mg/l @ 25°C.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Oxygen saturated waters have pleasant taste.

• The presence of oxygen in the water in

dissolved form keeps it fresh.

• Drinking water is thus aerated if necessary to

ensure maximum DO.
 Effects:
• waters lacking in DO have an insipid
(Unpleasant) tastes

• more quantity of DO causes corrosion to the

pipe materials
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
 The DO content of water is generally
determined by:
 Winkler's method

◦ an oxidation-reduction process carried out

chemically to liberate iodine in amount
equivalent to the quantity of dissolved oxygen
originally present.
• The maximum times that
DO meter
samples may be held before
analysis --- immediately after
sampling
Oxygen Demand
 Organic compounds are generally unstable to be
oxidized biologically or chemically to stable,
relatively inert end products such as CO 2, H2O &
NO3.

 Indicators used for estimation of the oxygen

demanding substance in water are:
◦ BOD, COD, TOD and TOC

 An indication of the organic content of water can

be detected by:
◦ measuring the amount of oxygen required for
stabilization
Oxygen Demand
 BOD is the quantity of oxygen required for the
biochemical oxidation of the decomposable
organic matter at specified temperature within
specified time. (20°C and 5 day).
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a
measurement of the oxygen required to oxidize
soluble and particulate organic matter in water.

Organic Inorganic

Bio-degradable Non
biodergradab BOD
le
COD
Nitrogen
 The forms most important to water quality include:
a. Organic – nitrogen: in the form of protein, amino
acids and urea
b. Ammonia – nitrogen: nitrogen as ammonium salts.
eg. (NH4).CO3

c. Nitrite- nitrogen: an intermediate oxidation stage.

Not normally present in large quantity.
d. Nitrate- nitrogen: final oxidation product of
nitrogen.
e. Gaseous nitrogen (N2)
 The presence of nitrogen compounds in surface
waters usually indicates pollution.
Nitrogen
 Excessive amount of ammonia and organic nitrogen
may result from recent sewage discharges or runoff
contamination by relatively fresh pollution.
 Effect (s):
◦ NO3- poisoning human and animals babies (human below
6 month old) … blue baby syndrome
 NO3- > NO2- (in acidic condition) – will substitute O 2 in blood
vessel
◦ High nitrate levels in drinking water:
 May increase cancer risks (nitrosamines/des) (Mirvish
1991)
 Cause disruption of thyroid function
 Cause birth defects
◦ Excessive algae breeding and aquatic plants
Phosphorus
 A mineral nutrient that is essential for all forms of
life.
 Exist in a form of “orthophosphate”, “condensed
phosphate”, and “organic phosphate”.
 Source (s):
◦ readily present in soil (weathering of rocks)
◦ fertilizers
◦ human wastes (“organic phosphate”)
◦ domestic wastes (element in detergent)
 Effects (s)
◦ algae breeding and aquatic plants
◦ > 0.2 mg/l – disturb coagulation
processes in WT plants
Hardness
 Hard water is formed when water percolates through
deposits of calcium and magnesium containing
minerals such as limestone, chalk and dolomite.
 Hardness is caused by:
◦ Measure of “multivalent” cations in
water such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn3+

◦ Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the major constituents

 Hardness is defined as the concentrations of calcium

and magnesium ions expressed in terms of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).
Hardness
Hardness
Boilin
 Two kinds of hardness: g

i. Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness)

◦ Calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2)

◦ Magnesium bicarbonate (Mg(HCO3)2)

ii. Permanent hardness (non- carbonate hardness)

◦ Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

◦ Magnesium chloride (MgSO4)

◦ Calcium chloride (CaCl2)

◦ Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

Hardness
 A generally accepted classification of hardness is
as follows:
< 50 (75) mg/1 as
Soft
CaCO3
50 (75) – 150 mg/1 as
Moderately hard
CaCO3
150 – 300 mg/1 as
Hard
CaCO3

 Generally > 300ofmg/1

Very hard a hardness 100asto
CaCO
1503 mg/liter is
desirable.
 Water hardness more than 600mg/lit have to be
rejected for drinking purpose.
Hardness
 Excess of hardness leads to the following effects:
i. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing
ii. Fabrics when washed become rough & strained with
precipitates.
iii. Is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making,
dye and ice-cream manufactures.
iv. It forms scales in the boiler tubes and reduces their
efficiency
v. The precipitates clog the pores on the skin & makes the
skin rough
vi. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values
vii. Very hard water is not palatable(pleasant)
viii. May cause kidney stones are generally composed of
calcium salt and usually occur as calcium oxalate.
Chloride
 Chlorides are widely distributed in nature as salts
of sodium (NaCl), potassium (KCl), and calcium
(CaCl2).
 Source (s):
◦ mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride
◦ mixing of saline water and sewage in the water
 Effect (s):
◦ Excess of chlorides is dangerous and unfit for use
◦ When it is in excess of 250mg/l:
 can give rise to detectable taste in water
 adverse physiological effect
Fluoride
 Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral that
protects teeth from tooth decay.
 Source (s):
◦ minerals discoloration of teeth

 Effect (s):
◦ concen. of 1 mg/l is good for the growth of children
teeth
◦ discoloration of teeth if it is taken in high concentration
◦ excessive concentration (> 5mg/l) – problem in bone
growth (bone fluorosis and other skeletal abnormalities)

bone fluorosis
Metals - non toxic and toxic
 Non – toxic: Ca2+, Mn2+, Na+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Al3+,
Cu2+, Zn2+
◦ dangerous for health if the concentration is high
 Source (s):
◦ minerals, readily available from nature
 Effect (s):
◦ color, odor, taste
◦ deteriorate health (at high concentration)
◦ discoloration of clothes during washing (Fe2+ & Mn2+)
◦ incrustation in water mains due to deposition of ferric
hydroxide and manganese oxide
Metals - non toxic and toxic
 Toxic – As2+, Ba2+, Cd2+, Cr2+, Pb2+, Hg2+
◦ stored up in food chain
 Source (s):
◦ human activities such as mining and industries
 Effect (s):
◦ dangerous disease such as cancer, abortion and
deformation in newborn baby
 Arsenic, Selenium are poisonous, therefore they
should be removed totally.
Biological Characteristics

Biological
Characteristics

Bacteriu
Viruses Algae Protozoa
m
Biological Characteristics
 microorganism that bring diseases are called
“pathogen”.
 Their quantities are very small compared to
other microorganisms.
 The experiments to determine the presence of
all pathogens takes a long time and very
expensive.
 The presence of pathogenic microorganism is
shown by indicator microorganism
Biological Characteristics
 Properties of indicator microorganism :
◦ Can be used for all types of water
◦ Always present when pathogen is present
◦ Always absent when pathogen is absent
◦ Easily experimented and give reliable results

 Typical indicators used are coliform group

◦ Coliform group:
 Fecal coliform e.g. [Link]
 Total coliform e.g. fecal coliform,
soil coliform and others
Algae
 These are small, chlorophyll bearing generally
one–celled plants of varying shapes and sizes
which live in water.
 When present in large numbers:
◦ may cause turbidity in water and an apparent
color.
◦ cause trouble in water works by undue clogging of
filters
◦ their most trouble some characteristics in the
taste and odor that they may cause.
Bacterium, Protozoa
 Bacterium:
◦ Many are found in water.
◦ Some bacteria are indicator of pollution but are
harmless; other few in number are pathogenic.
◦ Bacterial-born diseases include: typhoid fever,
cholera, and bacterial dysentery
 Protozoa:
◦ They are the lowest and simplest forms of animal
life.
◦ Protozoa–born diseases include giardiasis and
amebic dysentery.
Examination of Water Quality
 The purposes of analysis of raw water and
purified water:
◦ To classify the water with respect to general level
of mineral constituents
◦ To determine the degree of clarity
◦ To determine the chemical & bacteriological
pollution of water
◦ To determine the presence of an excess of any
particular constituent
◦ To determine the level of organic impurities
◦ To set the outlines of purification process and
specify various stages
◦ To ascertain whether purification of water has
reached to the required standards or not.
Examination of Water Quality
 There are two aspects of water analysis that we
need to consider:
 What substances or organisms are we interested in
testing for …. and why?
√ What procedures and equipment do we use to
make the measurements and … how do they work?
Water Sampling
Objectives:
 Baseline
( Surface water)
water quality
 Impact assessment
 Assessment of technology
 Performance assessment
of treatment plant
 Assessmentof products
and processes
Water sampling
 Conventional

 Automated water sampling

 How much to collect?
 Sample preservation and
storage
 Where to sample?
◦ Representative of water source
◦ Include points of possible
contamination
◦ Uniformly distributed sampling
points at WDS
Sampling – how much water do
you need?
 Depends on:
◦ the parameters to be
analyzed
◦ the method used for
analysis
 TSS often require the
greatest volume (> 1L)
 Betterto be safe and have
too much water rather
than too little
 Also depends on how
practical it is to carry out
large volumes of water
Suggested sample volumes

Analyte Volume needed

TSS Often > 1 L
Total phosphorus
200 - 500 ml
Total nitrogen anions
Dissolved nutrients ~ 100ml
Total and dissolved carbon ~ 60 ml
Metals ~ 60 ml
Chlorophyll > 500 ml
Sampling - Where to sample?
 Samples must be taken from locations that are
representative of the:
◦ water source
◦ treatment plant
◦ storage facilities (reserve tanks and reservoirs)
◦ distribution network
◦ points of use
Types of Samples
1. Grab (spot or catch) sample
◦ is a discrete sample which is collected at a specific
location at a certain point in time.
◦ A source is known to be fairly constant
- In composition
- Over a considerable period
- For substantial volume
- Over spatial dimensions
◦ Condition of source
- Fairly steady = Represent the composition
- Varies with time = Suitable intervals
- Varies in space = Appropriate locations
Types of Samples
2. Composite samples
 is made by thoroughly mixing several grab
samples.
 Refer to a mixture of spot samples collected at the
same sampling site at different times.
 Useful technique in case of temporal variation in
water quality.
 The series of spot samples are analyzed
individually to get information on the daily
variability, and afterwards the average can be
computed.
Types of Samples
2. Composite samples
 Sometimes the indication 'time-composite‘ (24-
hr period) is used to distinguish from 'location
composite‘ sampling.
 To evaluate the nature of special discharges
(e.g. variable in volume or irregular in time):
◦ sampling at time intervals representing the period
during which such discharges occur
 Required to measure the flux of pollution load
discharged through a point source.
Types of Samples
3. Integrated samples
 Sometimes samples are collected at the same location
but:
◦ due to horizontal or vertical variation in the composition
of the river (or in water flow) or lake
 as the flow comes from different points in the cross-section

 To evaluate the average composition, total load or mass

balance, integrated samples are collected in proportion
to the river flow of the areas of sample collection.
 Collection of integrated samples may require equipment
to collect sample from various depths
Types of Samples
4. In‐situ measurements
◦ Some determinations are more likely to be
affected by sampling and sample storage.
◦ In several cases the expected changes are so large
◦ If possible, these parameters should be analyzed
on the sampling site or, even better, in-situ.
◦ Important parameters: pH, DO, temperature, EC
and sometimes turbidity.
◦ Numbers and diversity of organisms is also to be
considered as in situ analysis
Design of Water Sampling Program
Objectives, parameters, levels
of
accuracy and use of the data

Sampling Location

Sampling frequency

Sample collection

Sample
On Site Analysis
Preservation
Analytical methods and Instrumental
Techniques
Data handling and
reporting
Standard Tests_ Chemical
i. Titration (volumetric) method
◦ Quantitative analytical techniques which
employ a titration in comparing an
unknown with a standard
◦ Standard solutions are prepared using
analytical and distilled water
◦ The recommended determinations to be
made by titration method are:
 Chloride (Cl-), carbonates (CO32-), (HCO3), DO,
BOD, COD, calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++),
bromide (Br), (OH-), sulfide(S-), sulfite(SO32-),
acidity, alkalinity etc
Standard Tests_ Chemical
i. Titration (volumetric) method
◦ The basic requirements or components of
a volumetric method are:
1. A standard solution (i.e., titrant) of known
concentration which reacts with the analyte with
a known and repeatable stoichiometry (i.e.,
acid/base, precipitation, redox, complexation)
2. A device to measure the mass or volume of
sample (e.g., pipet, graduated cylinder,
volumetric flask, analytical balance)
3. A device to measure the volume of the titrant
added (i.e., buret)
4. A means by which the endpoint can be
determined. This may be an internal indicator
(e.g., phenolphthalein) or an external indicator
(e.g., pH meter).
Standard Tests_ Physico-chemical
ii. Colorimetric method (using color as
the basis)
◦ Measuring amount of color produced by
mixing with reagents at fixed wavelength
(using spectrophotometer)
◦ or comparison with colored standards or
discs (comparator)
◦ The recommended determinations made by
colorimetric method are:
 color, turbidity, iron (Fe++), manganese (Mn+
+
), chlorine (Cl2), fluoride (F-), (NO3-), nitrite
--- +
Standard Tests_ Physico-chemical
iii. Gravimetric method (using weight as the basis)
◦ Weight of insoluble precipitates or evaporated
residues in glassware or metal and accurate analytical
balance
◦ The recommended determinations made by
gravimetric methods are:
 sulfate (SO4), Oil and grease, TDS, TSS, TS, etc

iv. Electrical method

◦ probes are used to measure electrical potential in
millivolts against standard cell voltage.
◦ The recommended determinations made by electrical
methods are:
 pH, Fluoride (F-), DO, Nitrate (NO3), etc.
Standard Tests_ Chemical
v. Flame spectra (emission & absorption)
method
◦ At fixed wavelength characteristics to ions
being determined measuring intensity of
emission or absorption of light produced by
ions exited in flame or heated sources.
◦ The recommended determinations made by
flame spectra methods are:
 Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Lithium (Li+), etc.
Standard Tests_ Bacteriological
 Bacteriological water analysis is a method of analyzing
water to estimate the numbers of bacteria present.
 Analysis is usually performed using culture, biochemical
and sometimes optical methods.
i. Plate count method
◦ relies on bacteria growing a colony on a nutrient medium
so that the colony becomes visible to the naked eye and the
number of colonies on a plate can be counted.
◦ dilute to a level where you will get countable colonies on
plates
◦ lab procedure involves making serial dilutions of the
sample (1:10, 1:100, 1:1000, ...) in sterile water &
cultivating these on nutrient agar in a dish that is sealed &
incubated.
Standard Tests_ Bacteriological
ii. Membrane filtration method
◦ refinement of total plate count in which serial
dilutions of the sample are vacuum filtered through
membrane filters and these filters are themselves
laid on nutrient medium within sealed plates.
◦ Any organisms in the sample are concentrated on
the surface of the membrane.
◦ Membranes have a printed mm grid printed on and
can be reliably used to count the number of
colonies.
◦ Provides presence or absence information within 24
hours.
Standard Tests_ Bacteriological
Step-by-step Procedures
0.45 µm (white)

appropriate place the pour the Rinse funnel

nutrient or membrane filter sample into with sterile
culture into the funnel the funnel buffered
medium assembly water

Incubate at
the 37/44
°C temp &
for 24 hr
remove the Place the
membrane filter membrane filter
Count the colonies
from the funnel into the prepared
Water Quality Standard
 Public water supplies are obliged to provide a
supply of wholesome water which is suitable
and safe for drinking purposes.
 Water quality standards may be set regional,
national, or international bodies.
 Guidelines for drinking water quality have
established by the World Health Organization
(WHO) as shown in the table below.
Water Quality Standard
Table 1: WHO guideline for drinking water quality
Guideline
Parameter Unit
value
Microbial quality
Number/ 100
Fecal coli forms Zero*
ml
Coli form Number /100
Zero*
organisms ml

Arsenic mg/1 0.05

Cadmium mg/1 0.005
Chromium mg/1 0.05
Cyanide mg/1 0.1
Fluoride mg/1 0.5 - 1.5(3)
Lead mg/1 0.05
Mercury mg/1 0.001
Nitrate (as
Water Quality Standard
Parameter Unit Guideline value
Calcium mg/l 75
Aluminum mg/1 0.03
Chloride mg/1 250
Color True color unit 5(15)
Copper mg/1 1
Hardness mg/1(as CaCO3) 300
Iron mg/1 0.3(3)
Manganese mg/1 0.3
pH ---- 6.5 - 8.5
Sodium mg/1 200
Total dissolved
mg/1 500
solids
Sulfate mg/1 250
Non
Taste and odor ----
objectionable
Turbidity NTU 5(10)
Zinc mg/1 5
Sources of Water Pollution
 Domestic Sewage
 Industrial Wastes
 Catchment Area
◦ agricultural activities and extensive use of fertilizers
and insecticides are main factors
 Distribution System
◦ If there are cracks in pipes or if joints are leaky, the
flowing water gets contaminated by the surrounding
substances
 Oily Wastes
 Radioactive Wastes
 Travel of Water
 Question
1. Explain the general characteristics of the following
water sources in terms of impurities/wqp.
i. Pure water
ii. Rain water
iii. Surface runoff water
iv. River water
v. Lake and reservoir water
vi. Groundwater
2. Explain the effects of impoundment on water
quality.
3. Explain the effects of storage and direct sunlight
on water bottles made of PET (polyethylene
terephthalate).