Introduction to Linguistics
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CHAPTER 11
Discourse analysis
Instructor: Lam Hoang Phuc
11.1. Discourse analysis
Discourse: language beyond the sentence.
Discourse analysis is the study of language in texts and
conversations.
Discourse analysis concerns the ability to create complex
discourse interpretations of linguistic messages.
11.2. Interpreting discourse
Our interpretation of a text depends on the connections
within that text.
There are two types of connections:
o Cohesion refers to the connections in terms of language
used. Cohesion is achieved by the use of cohesive
devices such as anaphoric expressions or connectors.
o Coherence refers to the connections in terms of ideas
conveyed. Coherence concerns whether readers can
make sense of what they read.
11.2. Interpreting discourse
Examples of cohesion and coherence:
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by
saving every penny he could. That car would be worth a
fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my
college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the
convertible.
o Cohesion is achieved as the sentences are well
connected through the use of anaphoric expressions
(e.g. My father – he, a Lincoln convertible – that car)
and the connector However.
o Coherence is also achieved as we can easily make sense
of the situation in the text about a father who sold his
car to help pay the tuition fees of his child.
11.3. Conversation analysis
Turn-taking
English conversation is an activity in which, for the most
part, two or more people take turns at speaking. Typically,
only one person speaks at a time and there tends to be an
avoidance of silence between speaking turns.
We use certain signals (e.g. asking a question, pausing) to
indicate a turn is complete.
We can also use signals (e.g. short repeated sounds, body
language) to express that we want to take the turn.
We can try to keep our turn by making our sentences run
on with the use of connectors and/or filled pauses (e.g.
em, er, you know).
11.3. Conversation analysis
Co-operative principle and conversational maxims
Co-operative principle: “Make your conversational
contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it
occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange in which you are engaged” (Grice, 1975).
Four conversational maxims:
o Quantity maxim: Make your contribution as informative
as is required, but not more, or less, than is required.
o Quality maxim: Do not say that which you believe to be
false or for which you lack adequate evidence.
o Relation maxim: Be relevant.
o Manner maxim: Be clear, brief and orderly.
11.3. Conversation analysis
Hedges
Hedges are expressions speakers use to mark that they
may be in danger of not fully adhering to the co-operative
principle and the maxims.
E.g.
“Not to change the subject, but…”
relation
“I won’t bore you with all the details, but it was an exciting
trip.”
quantity
“ As far as I know, they’re married.”
quality
11.3. Conversation analysis
Implicatures
In conversation we assume that, unless otherwise
indicated, the participants are adhering to the co-operative
principle and the maxims.
Therefore, when participants flout the maxims, they may
have a reason for doing so. In other words, their utterance
may contain an implicature (an additional conveyed
meaning).
The co-operative principle and the maxims can help us
explain why sometimes people say things that appear to
have no communicative value.
11.3. Conversation analysis
Implicatures
Example of implicature:
James: Hey wanna hang out sometime?
Linda: I have a boyfriend.
The implicature of Linda’s response is that she is already in
a romantic relationship so she thinks it is inappropriate for
her to hang out with another guy like James; therefore, her
response implies the answer “No.”
11.4. Background knowledge
Background knowledge can be divided into:
o Schema (plural schemata): a conventional knowledge
structure that exists in our memory.
E.g. when we hear the word supermarket, we can
immediately think of the things normally found in a
supermarket like shelves, shopping carts, check-out counter,
etc.
o Script: a series of conventional actions that take place in
a particular context.
E.g. when we hear the phrase having dinner at a restaurant,
we can immediately think of the actions involved like sitting
at a table, reading the menu, ordering food, paying for the
meal, etc.
REFERENCES
Yule, G. (2010). The study of language (4th ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.