An Introduction to Statistics and

Research Design

Chapter 1
 Two Branches of Statistics
• Descriptive statistics
– Organize, summarize, and communicate
numerical information
• Inferential statistics
– Use samples to draw conclusions about a
population
 Branches of Statistics
• Descriptive: M = 80.2, SD = 4.5
• Inferential: t(45) = 4.50, p = .02, d = .52

• First describes the average score on the

first test, second infers that this score is
higher than a normal statistics average.
 Samples and Populations
• A population is a collection of all possible
members of a defined group.
– Could be any size
• A sample is a set of observations drawn
from a subset of the population of interest.
– A portion of the population
• Sample results are used to estimate the
population.
 Samples and Populations
• A sample is a set of observations drawn
from a subset of the population of interest.
– A portion of the population
• Sample results are used to estimate the
population.
 Samples and Populations
• So, why would we use samples rather
than test everyone?
– What would be more accurate?
– What would be more efficient?
 Statistics = Numbers
• Mostly, statistics is all about numbers.
• So … how can we make these
observations into numbers?
– Think about all the different types of things
you can measure…
 Variables
• Observations that can take on a range of
values.
– An example: Reaction time in the Stroop Task
• The time to say the colors compared to the time to
say the word
 Stroop Demonstration

• Look at the following words and say each word

as quickly as you can:
• [Link]
v=pP7xlattxTc
 Stroop Test
• Why is the Stroop test hard?
– It seems we have a hard time inhibiting our
reading of the word!
 Types of Variables
• Discrete
– Variables that can only take on specific values
(e.g., whole numbers)
• How many letters are in your name?
• Tricky part … we can assign discrete values to
things we’d normally consider words.
 Types of Variables
• Continuous
– Can take on a full range of values (usually
decimals)
• How tall are you?
– What to do with those teacher evaluations?
More Classification of Variables
• Nominal: category or name
• Ordinal: ranking of data
– These are generally considered discrete
More Classification of Variables
• Interval: used with numbers that are
equally spaced
• Ratio: like interval, but has a meaningful 0
point
– These are generally described as scale
variables and are thought of as continuous.
 Examples of Variables
• Nominal: name of cookies
• Ordinal: ranking of favorite cookies
• Interval: temperature of cookies
• Ratio: How many cookies are left?

• What kind of data does our Stroop test

give us? Interval or ratio?
 A distinction
• The previous information talks about the
type of number you have with your
variable.
– This type leads to the type of statistical test
you should use.
 Variables
• Independent
– That you manipulate or categorize
– For a true experiment: must be manipulated –
meaning you changed it
• Generally these are dichotomous variables
(nominal) like experimental group versus control
group.
– For quasi experiment: you used naturally
occurring groups, like gender.
• Still dichotomous
 Variables
• Dependent
– The outcome information, what you measured
in the study to find differences/changes based
on the IV.
• Generally, these are interval/ratio variables (t-tests,
ANOVA, regression), but you can use nominal
ones too (chi-square)
 Variables
• Confounding
– Variables that systematically vary with the IV.
– That you try to control or randomize away
– Confounds your other measures!
 Reliability and Validity
• A reliable measure is consistent.
– Measure your height today and then again
tomorrow.
• Standardized tests are supposed to be
reliable.
 Reliability and Validity
• A valid measure is one that measures
what it was intended to measure.
– A measuring tape should accurately measure
height.
> A good variable is both reliable and
valid.
> How do we measure this?
 Rorschach Personality Test

> The reliability of the Rorschach inkblot test

is questionable.
> The validity of the information it produces
is difficult to interpret.
 Hypothesis Testing
• The process of drawing conclusions about
whether a relation between variables is
supported or not supported by the
evidence.
 Assessing Variables
> Back to … how do we assign numbers to
things?
> Called an operational definition.
> This number assigning is important for using
statistical programs, such as SPSS.
> It likes numbers. 
 Assessing Variables
> Operational definition
• How to measure or detect variable of interest
• Depression:
– Diminished interest in activities
– Significant weight loss/gain
– Fatigue (loss of energy)
– Feelings of worthlessness
– Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide
Developing Research Hypotheses
 Types of Research Designs
• Experiments: studies in which participants
are randomly assigned to a condition or
level of one or more independent
variables
 Experiments and Causality
• Experiments: able to make causal
statements
– Control the confounding variables
• Importance of randomization
Figure 1-3:
Self-Selected into or
Randomly Assigned to
One of Two Groups:
Guitar Hero Players
vs. Non-Guitar Hero
Players
 One Goal, Two Strategies
• Between-groups designs
– Different people complete the tasks, and
comparisons are made between groups.
• Within-groups designs
– The same participants do things more than
once, and comparisons are made over time.
 Other Research Designs
• Not all research can be done through
experimentation.
– Unethical or impractical to randomly assign
participants to conditions.
• Correlational studies do not manipulate
either variable.
– Variables are assessed as they exist.
 Correlational Analysis
• Video game playing and aggression are
related.
• No evidence that playing video games
causes aggression.
 Outlier Analysis
• An outlier is an extreme score - very high
or very low compared to the rest of the
scores.
• Outlier analysis – study of the factors that
influence the dependent variable.
 Recap
• Operational definitions – ways to assign
numbers to variables that determine their
scale (dichotomous/continuous)
• Types of variables – describe how they
were used in an experiment (IV/DV)
• Types of research – further explain the
workings of the IV/DV (exp/quasi/correl)
– All of these are tied to an appropriate type of
statistic.