RESERVOIR TRAPS

The place where oil and gas are barred from

further movement.
Since oil and gas are lighter than water, and
since the reservoir rocks generally have a
regional slope, the petroleum moves through
the water both vertically and laterally until it
is barred by an impervious rock.
The impervious stratum that overlies the
reservoir rock is called roof rock.
In addition to the requirement that source
rock exists for the generation of
hydrocarbons, and that reservoir rock exists
for the storage and production of the
generated hydrocarbons, traps must also
exist to trap, or seal, the hydrocarbon in
place forming hydrocarbon reservoir.
Since the hydrocarbons are less dense than
the salt water, they will tend to migrate
upward to the surface, displacing the heavier
water down elevation. These fluids will
continue to migrate until they encounter
impermeable rock, which will serve as a
reservoir “seal” or “trap.”
The simplest and commonest way for a
permeable underground formation to become
a trap is to be folded into anticline.
The close association of oil and gas pools with
anticlinal folds was noted early and led to
what has long been known as the anticline
theory of oil and gas occurrence.
Geologists everywhere searched for anticlines
and domes on which to drill almost to the
exclusion of any other kind of trap.
Five types of hydrocarbon traps will be
discussed. Most traps encountered by a
petroleum geologist will be a combination or
variation of these five types.
 Anticlinal traps
 Fault traps
Salt dome traps
 Stratigraphic unconformity
Facies change
Anticlinal Traps
This trap may exist as a simple fold or as an
anticlinal dome. Sedimentary beds are generally
deposited in horizontal parallel planes over a
geographic region, so that many of these
sediments will be of essentially uniform thickness
over that region. If geologic activity should
occur, resulting in the folding of these sediments,
the result may be the formation of hydrocarbon
reservoirs in anticlinal traps.
The high part of the fold is the anticline, and the
low part of the fold is the syncline. Since the
hydrocarbons are the less dense of the
subsurface fluids, they will tend to migrate to the
high part of the fold.
Imagine a possible sequence of geologic events
leading to the formation of this hydrocarbon
reservoir. Sedimentary beds are deposited in a
water environment, as indicated by the
presence of limestone’s and shale’s.
Millions of years later, hydrocarbon generated
in source rock down elevation from this
anticlinal fold is forced from its source rock into
the water-saturated, permeable sandstone.
Since hydrocarbon is less dense than the water,
it begins to migrate up elevation, displacing the
heavier water down elevation. As it migrates
upward, pressure decreases.
Since the gas is so much less dense than the oil
or the water, it will migrate more rapidly toward
the top of the anticlinal trap. This process of
migration and fluid separation according to
density may continue over millions of years in
geologic time, until finally, equilibrium is
achieved as the hydrocarbon fluids accumulate
within the trap formed by the impermeable shale
cap rock.
The discovery of oil by [Link] in western
Pennsylvania, Drake demonstrated that drilling
for oil could be successful, and the amount of oil
he produced, through small compared with
modern production, showed the world that
drilling was the most effective way to obtain oil.
[Link] has often called the father of the
anticlinal theory.
McCoy and Keyte recognized the importance
of nonstructural accumulations and of traps
that were not anticlines. In 1934 they used
the term structural theory instead of
anticlinal theory, remarking that the term was
broad enough to include the occurrence of oil
on the flanks of anticlines, in lenses, and in
synclines, as well as the occurrence of oil on
anticlines, domes, and noses, they
summarized the structural theory as follows;
commercial deposits of oil and gas are
associated with structural irregularities in
porous sedimentary rocks.
There are many ways in which petroleum may be
trapped.
The criteria whereby the migration of petroleum
to the
Earth's surface can be arrested (albeit
temporarily) have already been discussed Much
has been written about traps, both how to find
them and how to classify them. Various
approaches have been used for trap
classification. North (1985) summarizes much of
what has been written and discusses the merits
of geometrical and genetic classifications.
Hydrocarbon traps are any combination of
physical factors that promote the
accumulation and retention of petroleum in
one location. Traps can be structural,
stratigraphic, or a combination of the two.
Geologic processes such as faulting, folding,
piercement, and deposition and erosion
create irregularities in the subsurface strata
which may cause oil and gas to be retained in
a porous formation, thereby creating a
petroleum reservoir. The rocks that form the
barrier, or trap, are referred to as cap rocks.
Classification of traps;
Numerous classification of traps have been
proposed,Clapp’s final classification contained
the following main headings: 1)Anticline
structure 2) Synclinal structure, 3) homoclinal
structure 4) dome structure 5) unconformities
6) leticular sands, 7) cavities irrespective of
other structures, 8) structures due to faults.
Heroy classifies traps as 1) depositional traps,
2) diagenetic traps, 3) deformational traps.
Wilson classifies traps as 1) closed reservoirs; a)
by local deformation of strata, b) because of
varying porosity of the rock c) closed by
combination of folding and varying porosity.
Wilhelm's classification is quite detailed, and
his chief classification headings are: 1)
convex trap reservoirs,2) permeability trap
reservoirs, 3) pinch out trap reservoirs, 4)
salt trap reservoirs, 5) pierecement reservoir.
The classification divides the traps broadly
into three basic types,
1) structural traps
2) stratigraphic traps
3) combinations of traps.
Structural Traps
 Structural traps are created by the
deformation of rock strata within the earth’s
crust. This deformation can be caused by
horizontal compression or tension, vertical
movement and differential compaction, which
results in the folding, tilting and faulting
within sedimentary rock formations.
Stratigraphic traps:
is one in which the chief trap making element
is some variation in the stratigraphy or
lithology, or both, of the reservoir rock, such
as facies change, variable local porosity and
permeability.
Combination traps: traps are found that illustrate
almost every imaginable combination of structural
and stratigraphiy. Traps in the middle group, formed
by both structural and stratigraphic causes in
roughly equal proportions, are best called
combination traps.
` Structural traps are formed chiefly as a result of
folding and faulting are the ones that most apparent
from surface mapping and most readily located
underground.
one important aspect of structural features such as
anticlines is that the structure generally extends
vertically through a considerable thickness of
sedimentary formations thereby causing traps to
form in all of the potential reservoir rocks affected
by them.
 Underground traps formed chiefly by
structural deformation result from nearly all
of those type of folding, faulting, and other
Anticlinal and DomeTrap— The rock layers in an
anticlinal trap were originally laid down horizontally
then folded upward into an arch or dome. Later,
hydrocarbons migrate into the porous and permeable
reservoir rock. A cap or seal (impermeable layer of rock)
is required to permit the accumulation of the
hydrocarbons.
§ Salt Dome or Salt Plug Trap— A trap created by
piercement or intrusion of stratified rock layers from
below by ductile nonporous salt. The intrusion causes
the lower formations nearest the intrusion to be uplifted
and truncated along the sides of the intrusion, while
layers above are uplifted creating a dome or anticlinal
folding. Hydrocarbons migrate into the porous and
permeable beds on the sides of the column of salt.
Hydrocarbons accumulate in the traps around the
outside of the salt plug if a seal or cap rock is present.
Fault Trap— The faulting of stratified rock
occurs as a result of vertical and horizontal
stress. At some point the rock layers break,
resulting in the rock faces along the fracture
moving or slipping past each other into an
offset position. A fault trap is formed when
the faulted formations are tilted toward the
vertical. When a non-porous rock face is
moved into a position above and opposite a
porous rock face, it seals off the natural flow
of the hydrocarbons allowing them to
accumulate.
Fault Traps
Fault implies fracturing of rock and relative
motion across the fracture surface. Consider a
possible sequence of geologic events that, in
geologic time, could lead to the formation of the
hydrocarbon reservoir, Sedimentary beds are
deposited in a water environment, as indicated by
the presence of shale’s and limestone’s.
During uplift, the rocks are fractured and
slippage occurs along the fault plane. This brings
the shale across the fault so that it seals the tilted
sandstone below the fault.
Since faulting occurred, the shale provides the
necessary seal, resulting in the existence of the
hydrocarbon reservoir.
Stratigraphic Traps Stratigraphic traps are
formed as a result of differences or variations
between or within stratified rock layers,
creating a change or loss of permeability from
one area to another. These traps do not occur
as a result of movement of the strata.
• Lenticular trap— A porous area
surrounded by non-porous strata. They may be
formed from ancient buried river sand bars,
beaches, etc.
 Pinch-out or lateral graded trap— A trap
created by lateral differential deposition when
the environmental deposition changes up-dip.
A lenticular trap is one that is sealed on its
upper regions by abrupt changes in the
amount of the interconnected pores within a
formation. This may be caused, in the case of
sandstones, by irregular deposition of sand
and clay at the time of sedimentation process.
ln these case, oil is confined within porous
part of the rock surrounded by the nonporous
rocks. Lenticular traps pinch out or change
permeability on all sides and are fairly
common in carbonate rocks. They occur
usually in the upper part of carbonate build
up, commonly called reefs, which may contain
very large hydrocarbon accumulations.
Angular Unconformity Trap— An angular
unconformity is one in which older strata dips
at an angle different from that of younger
strata.
An angular unconformity trap occurs when
inclined, older petroleum bearing rocks are
subjected to the forces of younger non-porous
formations. This condition may occur
whenever an anticline, dome or monocline
are eroded and then overlain with younger,
less permeable strata.
SEDIMENTARY BASINS OF INDIA AND
THEIR CLASSIFICA TION

Basins are the depressions in the crust of the

earth that host the accumulation of sediments
transported by the agents like wind, water,
glacier etc. The sediments deposited in the
basin, subsequently undergo lithification. The
sediments, which in bulk constitute a product
of weathering and erosion of surface rocks,
also contain varying amount of organic
matters derived from plants and animals.
The organic matters present in a basin were
deposited with the sediments after their
decay. This organic matter, when buried with
the sediments and preserved in the basin,
under suitable condition of pressure and
temperature, transform gradually to
hydrocarbons and accumulate in the
reservoir rocks present in the basin.

Sedimentary basins are of great variety, each

being individually distinct by its tectonic
frame work, geological timespans, the type of
sediments accumulated and the environment
of deposition of the sediments.
Some sedimentary basins are 'depositional
basins’ as defined by a succession of strand-
Iine phenomena around the periphery. Other
basins are structural. Many sedimentary
basins are of composite origin and classified
as composite basins.
The sedimentary basins of India occupy an
area of l' 720,000 sq. km of which 3,20,000
sq. km. is in the offshore upto 200 m isobath.
There are 26 sedimentary basins in India, out
of which about 13 are important from
hydrocarbon point of view.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY
BASINS ACCORDING TO
HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL
Based on the exploration carried out so far
and the status of knowledge in terms of
occurrence of hydrocarbon or indications of
hydrocarbon, these basins are broadly
divided into four categories. This
classification instantly draws the attention of
the petroleum geologists to the area where
exploration or development plan need to be
taken up on priority.
Category-i
The petroliferous basins with proved
hydrocarbon reserves and where commercial
production has already started.
These basins are :
(1) Assam shelf
(2) Bombay offshore
(3) Cambay
(4) Cauvery
(5) Krishna -Godavari
(6) Tripura
Category-ii
Sedimentary basins with proved occurrence
of hydrocarbons but from which no
commercial production has yet been
obtained.
These basins are :
(1) Andaman- Nicobar
(2) Bengal
(3) Himalayan Foothills
(4) Jaisalmer
(5) Kutch
(6) Mahanadi
Category-iii
Sedimentary basins with no significant oil &
gas shows but which on Geological
considerations are considered to be
prospective.
These basins are :
(1) Bikaner- Nagaur
(2) Kerala -Lakshadweep
(3) Saurashtra
Petroliferous basins with uncertain prospects which
require basic data to be generated for prognosis. It
includes the basins which bear an analogy with
similar hydrocarbon producing basins in the world
and may be prospective.
These basins are :
(1) Arunachal Foothills
(2) Deccan Syncline
(3) Ganga Valley
( 4) Gondwana
(5) Kashmir valley (Karewa)
(6) Mizoram
(7) Manipur
(8) Narmada
(9) Vindhyan
TECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF INDIAN PLATE
The Indian plate is formed by three main sub
plates, the Arabian sea sub plate, the Indian
sub plate and the Gulf of Bengal subplate.
The external margins are defined by Alpine
belt in North, Carlsberg ridge in South, the
ninety E. ridge to the South-East and the
Murray ridge to the North-West. It also
includes the internal mobile zones, viz. the
Chagos- Laccadive ridge and West Bengal
ridge.
The Indian sub continent was the northern
margin of the Gondwana Super-continent,
with Precambrian basement and a
sedimentary history commanded by the