GIS II

Isabirye Moses
 About the course
Brief course description:
The major purpose of this course is to apply basic knowledge of GIS and Remote Sensing
towards solving and understanding real world issues with major focus on Environmental and
Natural Resource Management. It is important that the student must have passed FNE 1203
(Foundation GIS) as there will be little time to review introductory GIS concepts and methods.
Laboratory practicals will familiarize students with GIS tools to the degree where students
completing the course should be able to conduct their own analysis arising from field work using
GIS. Lab sessions will go beyond software training and are intended to provide students with a
method for addressing scientific and societal interests. The main tasks include: working with
remotely sensed data, image processing, spatial data analysis, scripts and functions. Course
activities will culminate in a final project to be prepared by each student with the help of the
instructor or teaching assistant.
 About the course
• Course objectives:
• At the end of the course unit, students should be able to;
• equipped with advanced GIS concepts, terminologies, applications, trends, and
pertinent issues of GIS and remote sensing, including cartography.
• describe how GIS as a tool is applied in various fields with major focus on
Environmental and Natural Resource Management.
• gain confidence in handling new problems, processing, analyzing and visualizing
of data to aid decision-making.
• provide an opportunity to improve existing skills in GIS and Remote Sensing.
• prepare diverse data collection schemes for designing a solution maps.
• describe studies under which GIS and Remote Sensing technology is
implemented using different GIS software frameworks.
• develop critical thinking in solving geospatial problems.
• explain the value of applications of GIS as applied in various fields.
 About the course
•
• Learning outcomes:
• On successful completion of this course, the student should demonstrate capacity to:
• apply information about advanced GIS and Remote Sensing concepts and terminologies to
practical management of natural resources.
• use GIS and Remote Sensing processes and apply skills of spatial data analysis for effective
decision making about in natural resources based on scientific evidence.
• demonstrate an understanding of how GIS and Remote Sensing technology is used in
management of natural resources in conjunction with GIS derived scientific data to address a
spatial issue of societal interest.
• use skills gained in GIS and remote sensing to conduct research and report writing.
• construct solution maps from a variety of datasets with a view of aiding decision making.
• evaluate criteria for use and implementing GIS and Remote Sensing technology using GIS software
frameworks.
• use skills acquired through GIS and remote sensing to aiding decision making about natural
resources management.
• articulate the value of use of GIS in problem solving and decision making in natural resources
management.
 About the course
• Mode of delivery:
• Lectures, Presentations, Practicals
•
• Course Assessment
• (a) Continuous Assessment 40%
• Take home assignment: 20%
• Tests: 20%
• (b) University Examination 60%
•
• Available Resources:
• Text books, desk top computers, projectors, white board, Lecture
rooms, soft wares (Quantum GIS, GRASS, ILWIS, ArcView, MapInfo)
 About the course
No. Description Contact
hours
(a) Introduction to Remotely sensed data: Electromagnetic energy and remote 10
sensing; energy interactions with the earth surface- spectral reflectance curves;
data types and characteristics- aerial photos, satellite images,
(b) Image Processing: Visualization of single band images; Image enhancement- 20
Contrast enhancement, Spatial enhancement; Visualizing multi-band images;
Geometric corrections and image referencing; Multi-band operations- Image
ratios, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Multi-band statistics,
Principal components analysis, Image arithmetics, Image fusion; Image
classification- Density slicing, Piece-wise linear stretching, Multi-spectral
image classification, Classification, Unsupervised classification,
 About the course
(c) Spatial data analysis: overlay operations- Map Calculation formulas- Arithmetic, 10
Relational, Logical, Conditional; Map Calculation and dependencies; Map Calculation
formulas resulting in class or ID maps; The Cross operation; Two-dimensional tables;
neighborhood and connectivity operations- Filtering- Majority filters, Smoothing
filters, Rank order filters, Binary filters; Neighbourhood calculations- single neighbor,
multiple neighbors; Distance calculation- simple distance, distance with weights;
Digital Elevation Models- Creating a Digital Elevation Model, Filters applied on
Digital Elevation Models, Creating a slope map, Slope direction (aspect), 3D Display,
Creating cross-sections from a DEM; geostatistical tools- Visualization of the input
data- Pattern analysis, Spatial autocorrelation; Point interpolation- Nearest Point,
Moving Average, Trend Surface, Moving Surface; Kriging estimation- Ordinary
Kriging, Simple Kriging and Indicator Kriging, Universal Kriging, Anisotropic
Kriging,
CoKriging, Spatial autocorrelation of raster maps;
 About the course

(d) Scripts and functions- Introduction; creating and running a script; Creating a script 5
with calculations and expressions; Using parameters in a script, Running a script from
another script, Special script language; Functions- System-defined functions, Random
functions, MinMax functions, User-defined functions
 About the course
• Suggested Reading List
• Principles of GIS, Lecture notes, ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands.
• Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of
Knowledge – [Link]/bok
• Principles of Remote Sensing, Lecture notes, ITC, Enschede, The
Netherlands.
• ILWIS 3.0 (2001) Academic User’s guide, ITC, Enschede, The
Netherlands.
• Paul A Longely, Michael F Goodchild, David J Maguire and David
W Rhind (1999) Geographical Information Systems, Volume 1,
Principles and Technical Issues, second edition, John Wiley and
Sons, INC.
 Image Processing
Remotely sensed data (satellite images) are
measurements of reflected solar radiation, energy
emitted by the earth itself or energy emitted by
Radar systems that is reflected by the earth
Image Processing
Sensors and platform
 Image Processing
Electromagnetic energy
– Electromagnetic spectrum
– Matter radiates EM waves of various wavelengths; total range is
known as EM spectrum
– The visible region occupies a relatively small portion in the EM
spectrum. Blue, green, and red are known as the primary colours or
wavelengths of the visible spectrum
Image Processing
Image Processing
Image Processing
 Exercise
• NDVI =(Band4 – Band3)/(Band4+Band3)

• Band4 (infrared band)= reflects highest for

vegetation
• Band3 (Red band)= reflects lowest for
vegetation
• BGBD1, BGBD2, BGBD3; which two images do
you use to calculate NDVI?
 Image Processing
• An image consists of an array of pixels (picture
elements) or gridcells, which are ordered, in
rows and columns.
• Each pixel has a Digital Number (DN), that
represents the intensity of the received signal
reflected or emitted by a given area of the
earth surface.
• The size of the area belonging to a pixel is
called the spatial resolution.
 Image Processing
• Image data characteristics
– More than a picture; are measurements of EM energy
– Image data is stored in raws and columns
– Single elements are called pixels – picture elements
– For each pixel, measurements are stored as digital numbers values or
DN values
– For each wavelength band measured, a separate layer is stored
 Image Processing
• The DN is produced in a sensor-system
dependent range; the radiometric values. An
image may consist of many layers or bands.
• Each band is created by the sensor that
collects energy in specific wavelengths of the
electro-magnetic spectrum.
 Image Processing
Electromagnetic energy and remote sensing

– The thermal infrared gives information about surface temperature

– Microwave can provide information on surface roughness and the
properties of the surface such as water content
Image Processing
– Spectral reflectance curves
• Spectral reflectance curves show the fraction of the incident radiation that
is reflected as a function of wavelength. Collections of typical curves are
stored in spectral libraries
• Vegetation: reflection depends on
– Leaf structure and orientation, leaf pigmentation, thickness, cell structure,
amount of water in the leaf
 Image Processing
Spectral characteristics

• Reflected radiation tells us something about surface

characteristics
• Radiometers measure the radiance in a portion of spectrum
• Radiance is stored as digital numbers (DN)
• Spectral reflectance curves
• Each material has a specific reflectance curve
 An idealised spectral reflectance curve of a healthy vegetation

• Bare soil: reflectance depends on

– Soil color, moisture content, presence of carbonates, iron oxide content
• Water: lowest reflectance; turbid water and water containing chlorophyll
reflection peak at the green wavelength

Reflectance spectra of five

soil types:
a) Organic dominated,
b) Minimally altered,
c) Iron altered, d) organic
affected, e) iron dominated
Monitoring Crop Performance
A case for sorghum
 Emergency
1.0 20
Grain Sorghum
15 Dry Treatment

Ratio
NDVI

Week 1
0.5 10
Emergence
5

0.0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
o
Cumulative GDDs (C )
0.6

Reflectance Factor
0.4
NIR

0.2

RED
0.0
0 1000 2000
o
GDDs (C )
 Week 5 leaf rolling
1.0 20
Grain Sorghum
Dry Treatment
15 Week 5
NDVI

Ratio
0.5 10 Leaf Rolling
5
& Lodging
0.0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
o
Cumulative GDDs (C )
0.6

Reflectance Factor
0.4
NIR

0.2

RED
0.0
0 1000 2000
o
GDDs (C )
 Week 7 irrigation
1.0 20
Grain Sorghum
15 Dry Treatment

Ratio
Week 7
NDVI

0.5 10
4 days after
5 Irrigation
0.0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
o
Cumulative GDDs (C )
0.6

Reflectance Factor
0.4
NIR

0.2

RED
0.0
0 1000 2000
o
GDDs (C )
 Week 10 heading
1.0 20
Grain Sorghum
15 Dry Treatment

Ratio
NDVI

Week 10
0.5 10
Heading
5

0.0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
o
Cumulative GDDs (C )
0.6

Reflectance Factor
0.4
NIR

0.2

RED
0.0
0 1000 2000
o
GDDs (C )
 Week 20 Maturity
1.0 20
Grain Sorghum
15 Dry Treatment

Ratio
NDVI

Week 20
0.5 10
Maturity
5

0.0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
o
Cumulative GDDs (C )
0.6

Reflectance Factor
0.4
NIR

0.2

RED
0.0
0 1000 2000
o
GDDs (C )
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• Perception of color:
– Concerns ability to identify and distinguish colors = identify and
distinguish entities in real world
– Color perception theory applied in photography, TV, printing and
computer animation
• Tri-stimuli model
– There are three degrees of freedom in the description of a color
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• Color spaces:
– Various 3 dimensional spaces are used to describe and
define colors. The following are used in RS:
1. Red Green Blue (RGB) space based on the additive
principle of colors
2. Intensity Hue Saturation (IHS) space, which is most related
to our, intuitive, perception of color
3. Yellow Magenta Cyan (YMC) space based on the
subtractive principle of colors
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• RGB
• a) Additive and b) subtractive color schemes
• The RGB cube: note the red, green, blue corner
points
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• IHS (Intensity, Hue and Saturation)

• Intensity describes darkness or lightness of color
• Hue is the name given to color e.g. green
• Saturation describes a color in terms of pale
versus vivid
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• Visualization of image
• Histograms
• Describes the distribution of the pixel values
(Digital Numbers) of that image
• DN values range between 0 – 255
• Histogram indicates the number of pixels for
each value in this range (frequencies of DN
values)
• DN: Digital numbers
• Npix: the number of pixels in the
image with this DN (frequency)
• Perc: frequency as a percentage of
the total number of image pixels
• CumNpix: cumulative number of
pixels in the image with values less
than or equal to DN
• CumPerc: cumulative frequency as a
percentage of the total number of
image pixels
• 1% value defines cut off value below
which only 1% of all values are found
• 1% and 99% values can be used to
define an optimal stretch for
visualisation

Standard histogram and

cumulative histogram
corresponding with above
table
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• Single band image display

• Displayed normally using grey scale(0-255)
• In grey scale, the same signal is input to each of the
(RGB) three channels

Green B

R
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• Original image values usually results in an

image with little contrast bse only a limited
number of grey values is used
• In previous example only 173 – 14 = 159 out of
255 grey levels would be used
• Transfer functions are used to optimize the
grey scale (contrast)
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• Transfer functions:
• Linear contrast stretch- obtained by finding
the DN where the cumulative histogram of the
image passes 1% and 99%.
• DN below 1% value become black(0), above
99% value become white (255), and grey
levels for intermediate values are found by
interpolation
 Image Processesing
Image enhancement and visualization
• Histogram equalization (stretch): shapes transfer function
according to the cumulative histogram. As a result the DNs in
the image are distributed equally over the available grey
scale.
• These manipulation enable better visualization of image and
don’t result in formation of new image.
 Image Processing
Image enhancement and visualization

• Color composites
– For a multi-band image, any combination of three bands can be input
to the RGB channels of the monitor
– The three bands can be subject to linear stretch or histogram
equalization to increase contrast
Image enhancement and visualisation

• A true color composite:

– RGB channels relate to
the red, green, and blue
wavelength bands of
scanner
• A false color composite:
– RGB channels relate to
the near-infrared, red
and green bands
respectively
Image enhancement and visualisation
• Filter operations
– Filter operations are used to enhance images e.g.
to reduce noise or to sharpen blurred images.
Various filters used include:
• Smoothing filters for noise reduction
• Edge enhancing filters for emphasizing local differences
for clear visibility of linear features
 Digital Image Classification
• Principle of image classification
• Image space
Feature Space or space plot
• Image classification
 Digital Image Classification
• Image classification process
 Image Classification Process
1. Selection and preparation of the image data.
Select appropriate:
– Sensor e.g. landsat or SPOT etc
– dates of image capture
– Band wavelength
• Select available spectral bands
– Avoid using two bands that correlate strongly e.g. green and
red correlate strongly.
 Image classification Process
2. Definition of the clusters in the feature space.
2 approaches are possible:
- Supervised classification:
- Operator defines the clusters during training
process
- Unsupervised classification:
- A clustering algorithm automatically finds and
defines a number of clusters in the feature space
 Image classification Process
3. Selection of classification algorithm
- After defining spectral classes in the feature space,
one decides on how the pixels are assigned to the
classes. Different criteria can be used:
- Box classifier
- Minimum distance to mean classifier
- Maximum likelihood classifier
 Image classification Process
4. Running the actual classification
- Based on its DN values, each individual pixel in
the image is assigned to one of the defined
classes
 Image Classification Process
5. Validation of the results
- Quality of classified image is assessed by
comparing it to reference data (ground truth).
 Image classification Process
• Supervised image classification
– Operator defines spectral characteristics of classes by
identifying sample areas (training areas)
– Sample areas can be found from field knowledge or
observations.
– A sample of a specific class forms a cluster in the feature
space.
– Clusters should be representative for a given class
– Sample (cluster) size = 30 x n (n = number of bands)
– Sample should not overlap with other samples (clusters).
Overlap means these classes cannot be separated by
image classification
Classification algorithms
 Image Classification Process
• Validation of the results
• Classified image should be checked since
classification is based on samples.
• Done by comparing classified image with true world
classes
• Sampling strategy for landcover is simple random
sampling or stratified random sampling
• A sample unit can be a point or an area of some size
 Validation of the results

• The error matrix with derived errors and accuracy expressed

as percentages.
• A,B,C, and D refer to the reference classes;
• a,b,c, and d refer to the classes in the classification result.
Overall accuracy is 53%
 Problems in image classification
• Mixed pixels
• Overlap of training samples
 Spatial data analysis
• To transform & combine data into useful
information discourse
• Classification of analytical GIS capabilities
– Measurement, spatial query & classification
functions – explore data without changing them
• Measurement = compute distance
• Spatial queries = identify features selectively
• Classification = (re)assignment of a thematic map
 Spatial data analysis
• Classification of analytical GIS capabilities
– Overlay functions = data layers are combined and
new information is derived. Both raster & vector
maps can be used
– Neighourhood functions = evaluate the
characteristics of an area surrounding a feature’
location. You can look at buffer zones around
features and spreading effect
 Spatial data analysis
• Classification of analytical GIS capabilities
– Network functions evaluate how features are
connected e.g. road networks, water courses and
communication lines in mobile telephony
– 3D data analysis deals with computation of solid
objects mostly used in visualization techniques
Key
DEM contour height(m)
 Spatial data analysis
• Measurement, spatial queries and
classification
– Measurement = counting, distance & area
computations
Measurements on vector data (point, line, polygon):
location, length, distance,& area
Location : stored as single coordinate pair
Length : stored as a list of pairs connected as
segments
Area size is associated with polygon features
 Spatial data analysis
• Measurement, spatial queries and
classification
– Measurements on raster data: consist of cells
Location of a cell can be its lower left corner or
the cell midpoint
Area size of a raster (group of cells) = No. cells
x cell size
Distance between raster cells is = distance
between mid points
 Spatial data analysis
• Measurement, spatial queries and
classification
– Spatial selection queries: made on the basis of
both geometric or attribute data
Interactive spatial selection: “what is at…?”
selection by pointing at or drawing spatial
objects – points, lines, or polygons
Spatial selection by attribute conditions: formulated
in SQL and answer questions like- “where are the
features with…?”
 Spatial data analysis
• Measurement, spatial queries and
classification
Combining attribute conditions: used in Multiple
criteria selection = combines atomic conditions e.g
area = 80 into composite conditions using logical
connectives – AND, OR, NOT and (..) e.g.
(Area<30000 AND LandUse = 70) OR (Area<400000 AND LandUse = 80)
Will select areas of class 70 less than 30,000 in size, as well as class 80 areas
less than 400,000
 Spatial data analysis
• Measurement, spatial queries and
classification
Selection using topological
relationships: containment, overlap,neighbourhood
Selecting features inside selection objects = containment
Selecting features that intersect = can select roads within
Mayuge district by intersecting National roads with Mayuge
district map
Selecting features based on their distance: Use the distance
function of the GIS as a tool in selecting features
 Spatial data analysis
• Measurement, spatial queries and classification
– Classification: removing detail from an input data set to
reveal important patterns
Reclassification: classifying classified data e.g. soil types to
crop suitability
User-controlled classification: user indicates classification
parameters & classification method
Automatic classification: done by the GIS; user specifies only
No. of classes in output dataset.
 Spatial data analysis
• Overlay functions: combine 2 maps
with same georeference and overlap
– Vector overlay operators:
• Polygon intersection operator (spatial join)
• Polygon clipping operator
• Polygon overwrite
– Raster overlay operators
• Perform their computations cell by cell
 Spatial data analysis
• Overlay functions: combine 2 maps
– Raster overlay operators
• Arithmetic operators: C1 :=A+10
• Comparison: AND, OR, NOT and
• logical operators: <,>, =,>=, <=, and <>;
• Conditional expressions
Output_raster := IFF(condition, then_expression,else_expression)
Here, Condition is the tested condition, then_expression is evaluated if condition
holds, and else_expression is evaluated if it does not hold
 Spatial data analysis
• Neighbourhood functions: spread phenomena
– Proximity computation
• Buffer zone generation:
• Spread computation: all directions- pollution studies
• Seek computation: directed spread- eg flow direction
 Spatial data analysis
• Network analysis
 Spatial data analysis
– Optimal path finding
• Aim is to find a sequence of connected lines to traverse
from the origin to the destination at lowest possible
cost using both geometric and attribute data

Ordered (a) and unordered (b) optimal path finding. In both cases, a path had to be found from
A to D, in (a) by visiting B and then C, in (b) both nodes also but in arbitrary order
 Spatial data analysis
– Network partitioning; allocation & trace analysis
• Aim is to assign lines and or nodes of the network, in a
mutually exclusive way to a number of target locations

a) The street segments within 2 km of the school are identified

b) The selection of (a) is further restricted to accommodate the schools capacity for
the new year
 Spatial data analysis
• Tracing functions on a network
– (a) tracing upstream
– (b) tracing downstream
– (c) tracing without conditions