Definitions of Research

 The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting

of information to answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and
Morrow, 1996).
 Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions (Tuckman, 1999).
 the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of
the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested
 Research may be defined as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of
events (Best and Kahn, 1998).
 Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a
systematic method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart,
1996).
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 Definitions of Research

 Reseach is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent

information on specific topic.
 the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information
(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon
about which we are concerned or interested.
 Dictionary definition of research is a carful investigation or inquiry
specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.

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 Research is not
Accidental discovery :
◦ Accidental discovery may occur in structured research process
◦ Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not previously noticed
◦ May lead to a structured research process to verify or understand the
observation
Data Collection
◦ an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge
◦ collecting reliable data is part of the research process
Searching out published research results in libraries (or the
internet)
◦ This is an important early step of research
◦ The research process always includes synthesis and analysis
◦ But, just reviewing of literature is not research
Information gathering:
◦ Gathering information from resources such books or magazines isn’t research.
◦ No contribution to new knowledge.
The transportation of facts:
◦ Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesn’t constitute
research.
◦ No contribution to new knowledge although this might make existing
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 Research is…
1. Searching for explanation of events,
phenomena, relationships and causes
– What, how and why things occur
– Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the
information generated credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions

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 Objectives of Research
 The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
through the application of scientific procedures.
 The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered yet.
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual situation.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with it is associated
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship b/n variables.

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 Research Characteristics
 Originates with a question or problem.
 Requires clear articulation of a goal.
 Follows a specific plan or procedure.
 Often divides main problem into sub problems.
 Guided by specific problem, question, or
hypothesis.
 Accepts certain critical assumptions.
 Requires collection and interpretation of data.
 Suggests possible solutions to the problem

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 What is Science, the Scientific Method, and
Research Methodology?
 Science…
◦ a body of established knowledge
◦ the observation, identification, investigation, and theoretical
explanation of natural phenomenon
 Scientific Method…
◦ involves the principles and processes regarded as characteristic of
or necessary for scientific investigation
◦ process or approach to generating valid and trustworthy knowledge
 Research…
◦ the application of the scientific method
◦ a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing
information (data)
 Research Methods
◦ the ways one collects and analyzes data
◦ methods developed for acquiring trustworthy knowledge via
reliable and valid procedures

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What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research Methodology?
Research Methods
- it is a method or technique that are
used to conduction of research.
- used for performing research.
Research Methodology- is a way to
systematically solve the research [Link]
may be unerstood as a science of studying
how research is done scientifically.

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 Scientific Method
 Hypothesis
 Sequence of experiments

◦ Randomization
◦ Repetition
 Change one parameter/experiment
 Prove/Disprove Hypothesis
 Document for others to reproduce results

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Scientific Method

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Structure of Research

The "hourglass" notion of research

begin with broad questions

narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions

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The Scientific Research Method
 Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.
◦ Identifying the problem
◦ Formulating a hypothesis
◦ Developing the research plan
◦ Collecting and analyzing the data
◦ Interpreting results and forming conclusions

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 Identifying the Problem
 First, and arguably the most important, step
◦ Several sources
 Theoretical basis
 Professional practice
 Personal experience
 Shear curiosity
◦ Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed
◦ Problem statement; experimental approach to the
problem; etc.
 Three categories when selecting a research
problem
◦ Those who know precisely what they want to do and
have a well conceived problem
◦ Those who have many interest areas and are having
difficulty deciding exactly what they want to study
◦ Those who do not have any idea about a worthwhile
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 Formulating a Hypothesis
 Hypothesis:
◦ A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of
the research
◦ A concrete, specific statement about the
relationships between phenomena
◦ Based on deductive reasoning
◦ 2 types of hypotheses:
 Null hypothesis (HO)
 All is equal; no differences exist
 Alternative (research) hypothesis (HA)
 Usually specific and opposite to the null

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Developing the Research Plan
 A strategy must be developed for gathering
and analyzing the information that is
required to test the hypotheses or answer
the research question
◦ Four parts:
 Selection of a relevant research methodology
 Identification of subjects or participants
 Description of the data-gathering procedures
 Specification of the data analysis techniques
◦ Pilot studies, all must be determined in advance!

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 Collecting and Analyzing the
Data
 Following all the pre-determined protocols
◦ Time in the lab collecting data
◦ Analyzing the composite data
◦ Controlling the environment
 Easiest part of the process…
◦ However, sometime the most time-consuming
part of the process…

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 Interpreting Results and Forming
Conclusions
 DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF!
 Does the evidence support or refute the

original hypotheses?
◦ Accept or reject the hypotheses
◦ Conclusions should be drawn:
 Develop new hypotheses to explain the results
 Inferences are typically made beyond the specific
study

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New Questions Arise

Question Identified

Results Interpreted Hypotheses Formed

Data Collected Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman,

and Hart, 1996)
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Research Classifications/Types
 System #1:
◦ Basic research
◦ Applied research
 System #2:
◦ Quantitative research
◦ Qualitative research
 System #3:
◦ Experimental research
◦ Nonexperimental research
 System #4
◦ Exploratory research
◦ Constructive research
◦ Empirical research
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Basic vs. Applied Research
Applied Research

Applying the result of research finding to solve specific problem happening

in an organization. The aim is to solve current problem
Ex. Research to identify social,economic, political trend that may affect a
particular institution,marketing research evaluation

Basic/fundamental Research
Enhancing the understanding of certain problem that commonly occur in
organization setting and seek method of solving them. The aim is to
generate knowledge, understand phenomena/problem that occur in various
organization setting. Is mainly concerned with generalisation and
formulation of [Link] on soma natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics.
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Basic vs. Applied Research
 Basic
 Applied
◦ Central purpose to
◦ Pure, fundamental
solve an immediate
research problem
◦ Discovery of new ◦ Improved products or
knowledge; processes
theoretical in nature ◦ Infers beyond the
◦ Takes many years for group or situation
the results of basic studied
research to find some ◦ Interpretation of
practical utility results relies upon
Basic research

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative
 Quantitative  Qualitative
◦ Numerical, measurable ◦ Generally non-numerical
data data
◦ Traditional or positivist
◦ Typically anthropological
approach
 Clearly stated questions and sociological research
 Rational hypotheses methods
 Developed research ◦ Observations of a
procedures “natural” setting
 Extraneous variable ◦ In-depth descriptions of
controls situations
 Large samples
 Traditional, statistical ◦ Interpretive and
analyses descriptive

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Experimental vs.
Nonexperimental
 Experimental
 Nonexperimenta
◦ Independent Variables l
(Ivs) and Dependant 1. Causal-comparative
Variables (DVs)
◦ Cause-and-effect 2. Descriptive
◦ Extraneous variable 3. Correlational
controls 4. Historical
◦ 3 fundamental
characteristics
1. At least 1 active IV
2. Extraneous var
controls
3. Observation of the
DV response to the
IV

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Exploratory, Constructive and Empirical
research
 The goal of the research process is to
produce new knowledge.
 This process takes three main forms
1. Exploratory research which structures and
identifies new problems
2. Constructive research which develops solutions
to a problem
3. Empirical research which tests the feasibility of a
solution using empirical [Link] is relies on
experience or observation alone,often without due
regard for system and [Link] is data base
research and in this research getting facts at
firsthand is must.
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 Research
Classifications/Types
 Other types
 Conceptual –is that related to some abstract idea or
theory it is generally used by philosophers and thinkers
to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.
 Descriptive- it includes survey and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at [Link] called Ex post facto in
social ex. Frequency of shoping, preferences of people.
 Analytical- in this case the researcher has to use facts
or information already available and analayze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.

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 The Process of Research
• The process is initiated with a question or
problem (step 1)
• Next, goals and objectives are formulated
to deal with the question or problem (step
2)
• Then the research design is developed to
achieve the objectives (step 3)
• Results are generated by conducting the
research (step 4)
• Interpretation and analysis of results follow
(step 5)
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The Process of Research

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The General Skeleton Process of
Research

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 Creativity in the Research
Process
• Research is a creative process
• “…research includes far more than mere
logic … It includes insight, genius, groping,
pondering – ‘sense’ … The logic we can
teach; the art we cannot”
• Research requires (or at least works best)
with imagination, initiative, intuition, and
curiosity.
• There are different types of creativity,
characteristic of different situations –
“applied” and “theoretical” most closely
associate with economic research
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 Fostering Creativity

◦ Gather and use previously developed knowledge

◦ Exchange ideas
◦ Apply deductive logic
◦ Look at things alternate ways
◦ Question or challenge assumptions
◦ Search for patterns or relationships
◦ Take risks
◦ Cultivate tolerance for uncertainty

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 Scientific Research
 Provides scientific information and theories
 Follows a certain structural process though the step order
may
vary depending on the subject matter and researcher
 The following steps are usually part of the most formal
research both basic and applied
 Observations and Formation of the topic
 Hypothesis
 Conceptual definitions
 Operational definition
 Gathering of data
 Analysis of data
 Test, reviving of hypothesis
 Conclusion
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Steps to Scientific Research
1. Identifying the research question or problem area
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a specific research
problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
8. Designing data collection plan
9. Selecting or developing specific data collection
instruments or procedures
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Preparing the research report
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 Significance of Research
 Research has its special significance in
solving various oprational and
planning problems.
 Research is equally important for social

scientists in studying social relationships

and in seeking answers to various
social poblems.
 It is significance for students,to

professional,to philosophers and

thinker or others.

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 Criteria of Good Research
 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined
and common concept be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail.
 The researcher should be report with complete frankness,
flows procedural design and estimate their effects upon
the findings.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objectives as possible.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal
its significance and the method of analysis used should be
appropriate.
 Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of
the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate baiss.

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 Chapter Two
Defining Research Problem
 What is research problem?
 In general a problem is a question in some

area and that are not getting the correct

answer or solution and that can lead us to
do a research.
 or it refers to some difficulty which a

researcher experiences in the context of

either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

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 Cont…
 Research problems are exist if the following condition are
meet:-
1. There must be an individual or group or organaization
let us call “I” to whom the problem can be
[Link] individual or the group as the case
may be,occupies an enivironment ,say “N” which is
defined by values of the uncontrolled variable.
2. There must be at least two course of action,say C1
and C2 to be pursued.
3. There must be at least two possible outcomes.
4. The courses of action available must provides some
chance of obtaining the objective,but they can not
provide the same chance,otherwise the choice would
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 Defining Reseach Problem
 If individual or group having one or more desired
outcomes are confronted with under:
 there must be an individual or a group which has some
difficulty or the problem.
 there must be some objectivies to be attianed at if one
wants nothing, one can not have a problem.
 there must be alternative or course of action for
obtaining the objectives.
 there must be some environment to which the
difficulty pertains.
 there must remains some doubts in the mind of a
researcher with regared to the selection of
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 Selecting the Problem

 Problems should be selecting carfully.

 There are some points the researcher should observe
to select research problems
i. subject which is overdone should not be normally
chosen.
ii. controversial subject should not be become the
choice of an average researcher.
iii. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
iv. The importance of the subject:- a researcher should
ask him self the following question

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 Selecting the Problem

A. whether he/she is well equipped in terms of

his/her background to carry out the research?
B. whether the study falls within the budget he/she
can afford?
C. whether the necessary cooperation can be
obtained from those who must participate in the
research subjects?
D. The selection of the problem must be preceded
by a preliminary study.

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Necessity of defining the Problem

 The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously

for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant
ones.
 A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher
to be on the track.
 Questions like: what data are to be collected? What charactherstic
of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relation are to
be explored.
 What techniques are to be used for the purpose? And similar other
question crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan
his strategy and find answer to all such questions only when the
research problem has been defined well.

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 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem

 There are five techniques for defining the

problem
1. statement of the problem in general way.
2. understanding the nature of the problem
3. surveying the available literature
4. developing the ideas through discussion and
5. rephrasing the research problem into a working
propostion

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 1. statement of the problem in general
way

 First of all the problem should be stated in general

way
 Keeping in view either some practical concern or
some scientific or intellectual interest
 Then the resercher can himself state the problem
or he can guidance of the guide or the subject
expert in accomplishing this task.
 The guide puts forth the problem in general terms,
and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it
down and phrase the problem in operational terms.

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 2. understanding the nature of
the problem
 The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss
it with those who first raised it inorder to find out how
the problem originally came about and with what to
object in view.
 If the researcher has stated the problem himself,he
should consider once agian all those points that induced
him to make general statement concerning the problem.
 For better understanding of the nature of the problem
discussion with those who have a good knowledge of
the problem concerned or similar other problems.
 The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be studied
and understood.

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 3. surveying the available
literature
 Before giving the definition for the problem surveying and
examining of literature that are concerning the problem is must.
 Must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already
undertaken on related problems.

4. developing the ideas through

discussion
 Discussion concerning a problem often produce useful
information.
 Various new idea can be developed through such
exercise.
 It can be called experience survey.
 Experienced persons should not only be confined to the
formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should
also be concerned with the general approach to the
given problem, techniques that might be used, possible
solutions.
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 5. rephrasing the research problem into a
working propostion

 Finally the researcher must sit to rephrase the

research problem in to a working proposition.
 The researcher puts the research problem in as
specific terms as possible so that it may become
operationally viable and may help in the
development of working hypothesis.

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