Freshwater Microplastic Pollution and

Management
 MODULE ONE
SESSION 1

Introduction to Microplastics
 MODULE 1: SESSION A

This course will bring you:

• The Definition and Classification of
Microplastics
• The Origins of Microplastics
• Global Distribution of Microplastics
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, you should be able to:

1. Define and classify microplastics
2. Identify the origins of microplastics
3. Understand the global distribution of microplastics
 Introduction to Microplastics
Understanding Microplastics: Definition and Classification

Courtesy Alexander Kunz

 Shape of microplastics

Classification by GESAMP (2019)

Introduction to Microplastics
Introduction to Microplastics
The Origins of Microplastics
Household

• Use of personal care products

or cosmetics (4,594 and 94,500
microbeads per single use)
• Use of washing machines and
tumble driers (12,500 t of
plastic fibres/Year)
• Opening of plastic packaging
(0.46 to 250 microplastic
particles per cm per opening)
The Origins of Microplastics
Tyre abrasion
• Road traffic produces tiny
rubber particles from tires
which are then washed into
rivers and from there into the
oceans.
• Top emitting nations/economic
groups (Wagner et al., 2018)
are:
• The European Union:
1,327,000 t/a
• The USA: 1,120,000 t/a
The Origins of Microplastics
Industry
• Cutting or grinding of plastic
• Styrofoam is released into the
environment by the fishing
industry
• Preproduction pellets are often
released due to improper
handling during packing and
shipping
• Plastic pellet production sites
can release between 3 – 36
million particles annually
(Karlsson et al., 2018)
 The Origins of Microplastics
Degradation of plastic
• Breakdown of larger plastic into
small particles via UV
radiation, mechanical or
chemical agents.
• The largest source for
microplastic fragments
• 4.8 – 12.7 million t of plastic
waste is released into the
environment yearly (Jambeck et
al., 2015).
Source: IUCN (2022)
 Global Distribution of Freshwater
Microplastics

Source: Cera et al. (2020)

 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• Most microplastics result from

land-based human activities,
entering freshwater via runoff
(Horton et al., 2017).
• During dry periods, plastics
linger in rivers, degrading (Li
et al., 2020a).
• Wet seasons, with intense
flows, worsen microplastic
pollution, resuspending
particles from sediment
(Hurley et al., 2018).
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• Spatial
distribution
– land cover
– proximity to
anthropogenic
activities
• Temporal
distribution
– timing and
volume of
precipitation and
runoff
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• Factors affecting the spatial

distribution of microplastics
– Anthropogenic activities
– Urban land cover
– Wastewater treatment plants
– Agricultural land cover
– Microplastics in remote
regions
– Population density
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• Physical watershed/stream
characteristics
– Increased slope of the riparian
zone
– Less dense polymers
(polypropylene, polyethylene) float
near the water surface in calm
conditions
– Denser polymers (polyethylene
terephthalate, polyvinyl chloride)
sink and settle at the channel
bottom
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• Factors affecting
the temporal
distribution of
microplastics
– Precipitation
seasonality
– Storm runoff
– Flow
velocity/discharge
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• The prevalent 'species' of microplastics

include PVC and polyester either in pellet or
fiber form
• Fibrous microplastics were of particular
concern from 2018 to 2022
• High fibrous microplastic levels in lab laundry
simulations and from wool textiles in home
washing
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• Studies from
Africa, Asia and
Europe revealed
that microplastic
concentrations in
the freshwater
range from 0.01
to 3 g/L
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• The final distribution of

microplastics in the water
column is also influenced
by
– Degree of weathering
– Sorption and
– Rate of aging
• Denser microplastics may
cause more lasting damage
to the environment.
 Global Distribution of Microplastics

• Tourism contributes to
microplastic
generation (
Retama et al., 2016).
• Presence rises during
the tourist season at
Wastewater Treatment
Plants (WWTP).
• Fibers dominate,
followed by fragments,
attributed to laundry
effluent influx.
 MODULE ONE
SESSION 2

The Environmental and Health Impacts of

Microplastics
 MODULE 1: SESSION 2

This course will bring you:

• Aquatic Microplastics and Human Exposure
• Human Health Risks of Aquatic Microplastics
• Ecological Risks of Microplastics in Aquatic
ecosystems
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, you should be able to:

1. Understand human exposure to aquatic microplastics
2. Appreciate the human health risks from aquatic
microplastics
3. Appreciate the ecological risks of microplastics in
aquatic ecosystems
Aquatic Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Occurrence and Risk
• Besides environmental
exposure, humans are also
directly exposed to
microplastics via domestic
products
• Microfibers, plastic foams,
and microbeads are widely
used in clothing, food
containers, and toiletries,
enhancing the risks of
personal exposure to
microplastics.
 Aquatic Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Occurrence and Risk

Source: Alconox (2018)

• The content of microplastics
in tap water can be as high as
4.2 pieces/L
• In bottled water it can be 20
times higher: 94 pieces/L
• Due to their small sizes,
microplastics are readily
accumulated in both aquatic
and terrestrial organisms
• MPs are transferred via the
food chain and finally end up
Source: Hongtek (2021)
in human consumers
Aquatic Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Occurrence and Risk
• Domestic food with additives
is another origin of
microplastics (
0.10–1.48 pieces/g)
• Annual individual consumption

Source: Facciolà et al., 2021

of MP reaches
52,000 microplastic pieces
from food and drink
• Adding the inhalable MPs
takes the figure to
121,000 items per year.
• The ubiquitous presence of
microplastics around humans
thus results in inevitable
exposure to humans
 Aquatic Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Human Exposure Routes
• Exposure routes of microplastics to
humans include
– ingestion
– inhalation, and
– dermal penetration
• The ingestion of microplastics is the
primary route
• Seafood is considered one main
source of microplastics by the
ingestion route
• Yearly microplastics uptake per
Source: Pironti et al., 2021 family consuming:
– Mollusks: 27,825 items
– Crustaceans: 17,716 items
– Fish: 8,323 items
 Aquatic Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Human Exposure Routes

• The content of microplastics in

various sources of salt:
– Sea salt: 550 items/kg
– Lake salt: 43 items/kg
– Rock/well salt: 7 items/kg
• The size of MPs in tap water
from groundwater sources (50–
150 μm: Mintenig et al., 2019) is
larger than the sizes of water Source: Newhart (2019)
packaged in bottles (6.5–20 μm:
Kankanige and Babel 2020)
• The size of MPs in soft drinks,
cold teas, and energy drinks is
larger: 0.1–3 mm. (
 Aquatic Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Human Exposure Routes

• MP ingestion predisposing
factors include:
– Direct release of microplastics
from food packaging
– Migration of chemical plasticizers
from food packaging to food
• For instance:
– Size of MPs directly derived from
seafood is 38.2–820 μm (
Leung et al., 2021)
– Size of MPs in canned seafood
was bigger and reached 3800 μm
(Karami et al., 2018)
 Applied Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Human Exposure Routes

• MP particles that enter

via the transdermal
route pass sublayers of
epidermis
• They reach
microcirculation of the
dermis and are
transported through
the human body via
the circulatory system
 Applied Microplastics and Human Exposure:
Human Exposure Routes

• Dermal absorption occurred

mostly when people used
personal care products:
– Hand cleanser
– Facial/body scrubs
– Face masks and
– Toothpaste
• Consequence: local toxicity and
possible absorption
• The human skin (Largest Organ:
surface area of 1.5–2 m2)
provides an interface with
ubiquitous MPs in the
environment
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic
Microplastics

• Toxic chemical additives

in plastic that are known
to affect human health
include:
– Bisphenol A (BPA)
– Phthalates
– Triclosan
– Bisphenone
– Organotins and
– Brominated flame
retardants (BFR)
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic Microplastics

• Four (4) morphological

and chemical
characteristics of
microplastics influence
their potential hazards: Source: Wang (2023)
– Physical
– Chemical composition
– Metabolism or Source:
Kang et al., 2019
degradation to form
monomers or other
derivatives
– The presence of biofilms
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic Microplastics

• Toxic effects strongly

depend on the:
– dose
– dose rate, and
– duration of exposure
• Uptake across the
gastrointestinal tract
(particles <50 μm) Source: Anderson and Li 2020
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic Microplastics

• Inflammation
• Larger polystyrene
particles (202 nm and 535
nm) cause inflammatory
effects on human lungs
• Polyethylene components
in prostheses can Source: Charlene 2016
fragmentize as a result of
wear and tear, and form
debris in the joints
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic
Microplastics
• Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis
• Different polystyrene nanoparticles
can induce oxidative stress,
apoptosis, and autophagic cell
death
• Oral exposure to MPs in mice has
caused:
– liver inflammation
– neurotoxic responses
– reduced body and liver weight Source: Abou-Ghali and Stiban 2015
– reduced mucin excretion in the colon
– altered amino acid and bile acid
metabolism
– altered microbiota composition
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic
Microplastics

• Metabolic Homeostasis
• Microplastics can impair
cellular metabolism in both
in vitro and in vivo models
• Pregnant mice exposed to
microplastics via ingestion
developed:
Credit: Biologyonline 2023
– Change in the gut microbiota
– change in the intestinal
barrier
– alterations to lipid/fatty acid
metabolism
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic
Microplastics
• Metabolic Homeostasis
• Nonylphenol and Bisphenol
A (BPA), are found to be
ingested by aquatic biota
• BPA is widely used to make
polycarbonate (PC) plastics
and epoxy resin as the
lining layer of food and
beverage containers.
• The leaching of BPA from
food containers into the
food and drinks can cause a
series of diseases
– Obesity and
cardiovascular diseases
– Changes in liver
Credit: Ullah et al., 2022
function and insulin
resistance
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic
Microplastics
• Metabolic Homeostasis
• Bisphenol A (BPA) causes
• Hormonal disruption:
– agonist for estrogen receptors
and
– antagonist for thyroid
hormone-mediated
transcription
– alters pancreatic function
• It affects foetal brain
development:
– damage to a developing foetus
– modification of the
Credit: Blondeel 2023
reproductive system and
– modification of neurological
functions
 Human Health Risks of Aquatic
Microplastics
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
polymers and plastisol
generally contain phthalate
esters as plasticizers.
• Some phthalate esters have
been identified as carcinogens
• Human exposure to phthalate
esters is associated with:
– abnormal sexual development
– changes in the levels of sex
hormones
– birth defects Credit: Chong et al., 2021
 Ecological Risks of Microplastics in Aquatic
ecosystems

• Aquatic organisms mostly

ingest small-sized MPs
than Large-sized MPs
• Small-sized MPs are easier
to enter aquatic
organisms’ bodies
• Commonly fibres and
fragments
• Coloured and black MPs
Credit: Scion 2023
are more easily swallowed
by aquatic organisms
 Ecological Risks of Microplastics in Aquatic
ecosystems

• MPs detected in fish in Lake

Victoria
• MP abundance in four fish
species of Ziway Lake in
Ethiopia was generally
higher in the wet than in the
Credit: Kapukotuwa et al., 2023 dry season
• MPs detected in bass (Perca
fluviatilis) from Lakes in Italy
is strongly related to high
anthropogenic activity
 Ecological Risks of Microplastics in
Aquatic ecosystems

• MPs inhibit algal

photosynthesis and
growth mainly
through:
– light shielding effect
– Increased turbidity of
the medium
– Cell internalization Credit: Dunford 2015
processes, and
– Adhesion to cell walls
 Ecological Risks of Microplastics in
Aquatic ecosystems
• Consumers are at the heart
of biogeochemical
processes in lake
ecosystems
• Consumers function in
– Energy transfer
– Material exchange and
information transfer
• Their presence promotes Credit: Pyramid Models
circulation, development,
and the stability of the
whole ecosystem
Ecological Risks of Microplastics in
Aquatic ecosystems
• MPs can act as carriers for
organic pollutants [e.g.
polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs),
polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs)], causing significant
risks to the environment as
well as organisms.
• The concentration of
polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) directly increases by an
order of magnitude from
water to shellfish to
crustaceans as well as fish
 Ecological Risks of Microplastics in
Aquatic ecosystems

• MPs adsorb organic or

inorganic substances to

Source: Stabnikova et al., 2021

provide nutrients with a
relatively stable habitat
for microorganisms
• These conditions
accelerate microbial
dissemination as well as
gene exchange
APPRECIATION