TRASFORMERS

• Transformer is a static device that transfer A.C voltage from primary circuit to
secondary circuit without changing its frequency
• The electrical circuit that receive supply from electrical mains is called primary
winding or coil and the electrical circuit which connected to the load is called
secondary winding or coil
• Transformer is a electromechanical energy converting device

• Fig 2.1
• The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is
applied to the primary.
• Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and
secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f. (E2) is induced in the secondary.
• This induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current I2
that flow through load.
• Consequently terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load.
• If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.
• On the other hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.
PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER

• When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an

alternating flux Փ is set up in the core.
• This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1
and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction.
• The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as
secondary e.m.f.
The following points may be noted
carefully:
(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic
induction.
(ii) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through
magnetic flux.
(iii) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same
frequency as the input power.
(iv) The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
Constructional detail : Shell type

• Windings are wrapped around the center leg of a

laminated core.
Core type

• Windings are wrapped around two sides of a laminated square

core.
Sectional view of transformers

Note:
High voltage conductors are smaller cross section conductors
than the low voltage coils
Construction of transformer from
stampings
Core type

Fig1: Coil and laminations of Fig2: Various types of cores

core type transformer
• The composition of a transformer core depends on voltage, current, and frequency.
Commonly used core materials are air, ferrite, soft iron, and steel. Each of these
materials is suitable for certain applications. Generally, air-core and ferrite
transformers are used when the source has a high frequency (above 20 kHz). Iron-
core transformers are usually used when the source frequency is low (below 20 kHz).
• A soft-iron-core transformer is very useful where the transformer must be physically
small, yet efficient. The iron-core transformer provides better power transfer than
does the air-core transformer. A transformer whose core is constructed of laminated
sheets of steel dissipates heat readily; thus it provides for the efficient transfer of
power.
• The majority of transformers contain laminated-steel cores. These steel laminations
are insulated with a nonconducting material, such as varnish, and then formed into a
core. It takes about 40 laminations to make a core of 2 cm thick. The purpose of the
laminations is to reduce losses which will be discussed later in this chapter.
• The most efficient transformer core is one that offers the best path for the most lines
of flux with the least loss in magnetic and electrical energy.
Shell type
• The HV and LV windings
are split into no. of
sections
• Where HV winding lies
between two LV
windings
• In sandwich coils
leakage can be
controlled
Fig: Sandwich windings
Principle of Operation
• The purpose of a transformer is to change an electric system quantity
(e.g., voltage or current) from one level to another.
• A transformer is made up of two or more conductors wound around a
single magnetic core, usually iron. The wound conductors, usually
copper, are called windings.
• The primary winding is electrically connected to the power source.
The secondary winding is electrically connected to the energy output
or load side. There is no electrical connection between the primary
and secondary windings.
How do Transformers Work?
• Passing an alternating current through a coil causes an alternating
magnetic flux in the magnetic core.
• The magnetic flux circulates in the magnetic core, passing through
another coil (the secondary winding), inducing an alternating voltage in
this coil.
• The amount of induced voltage depends upon four factors:
1) core composition and shape
2) number of turns in primary coil or winding
3) number of turns in the secondary coil or winding
4) primary voltage
• In a transformer there are two or more coils linked together by a common core
conducting the magnetic flux. Flux from one coil (the primary winding) passes
through the other coil (the secondary winding), inducing a voltage in the secondary
winding. Mutual induction links the two windings.
• we state that the transformer's purpose is to change an electric system quantity
from one level to another. The amount a quantity changes is determined by the
turns ratio, which is the ratio of the number of turns in the two windings.
• The magnetic flux links the turns of the primary and secondary windings. This
induces a voltage in each winding. Since the same flux cuts both windings, the
same voltage is induced in each turn of both windings.
• The total voltage in each winding is proportional to the number of turns in that
winding:
V1 ÷ V2 = N1 ÷ N2
• V1 and V2 are the voltages in the primary and secondary windings, respectively.
• N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings,
respectively.
• We know that inductance is the electrical circuit property that opposes the change of
current. The following statements describe the relationship between flux and inductance:
• Increasing the current flow increases the magnitude of the flux.
• Increasing the turns in the conductor increases the concentration of flux.
• Increasing the flux concentration increases induction.
• Inductance causes the current to lag the voltage.
• The current may lag the voltage in a transformer by a maximum of 90˚.
V1= Primary Volts V2= Secondary Volts
N1= Primary Turns N2= Secondary Turns Turns Ratio
I1= Primary Current I2= Secondary Current
P1= Primary Power In P2= Secondary Pwr Out
• There is one additional relationship we must consider – the relationship between P1 and
P2. In an ideal transformer, the power into the transformer is equal to the power out of the
transformer.
• In other words, there are no losses. Therefore, the following relationship exists: P1 = P2
Using the relationships, we can determine the changes across a transformer.
Step down transformer
Step Up Transformer
Example
A transformer has 300 turns on its primary winding and 600 turns on its
secondary winding. The input voltage is 120 volts. What is the output
voltage?
The given quantities are:
V1 = 120 volts
N1 = 300 turns
N2 = 600 turns
In the example, the transformer changed the primary-side voltage from
120 V to a secondary voltage of 240 V to decrease the current on the
secondary side. This is an example of a step-up transformer; the
voltage was stepped up from 120 V to 240 V. Conversely, a transformer
in which the energy transfer is from a high-voltage circuit to a low-
voltage circuit is a step-down transformer.
• We can see from the example that whatever happens to the voltage
through the transformer, the opposite happens to the current. If the
voltage is stepped down, current is stepped up by the same ratio.
Likewise, when voltage is stepped up, current is stepped down by the
same ratio.
• Some important concepts to remember about transformers include:
• Transformers do not produce electricity. They only transform it from
one level to another; i.e., step the voltage or current up or down.
• Although transformers take certain levels of voltage and current and
change them to other levels, the total amount of power does not
change from one side of the transformer to the other, if losses are
ignored.
• The power on the primary side equals the power on the secondary
side, if the transformer is without losses. In reality, transformers
experience some losses.
• While the transformer is operating, some electrical energy is
converted into heat. But we know the purpose of the transformer is
not to provide heat. The purpose is to transfer electrical energy from
the primary to the secondary winding. Therefore, any heat the
transformer produces is an energy loss and represents inefficiency.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the output power to the
input power.

• But we stated earlier that the power into a transformer is equal to the
power out of the transformer, therefore the efficiency equals 100%.
This is the ideal case. In reality, the transformer consumes some of
the power. Most transformers have an efficiency of between 97% and
99%.
Ideal Transformers

• Zero leakage flux:

-Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary
currents are confined within the core
• The windings have no resistance:
- Induced voltages equal applied voltages
• The core has infinite permeability
- Reluctance of the core is zero
- Negligible current is required to establish magnetic
flux
• Loss-less magnetic core
- No hysteresis or eddy currents
Ideal transformer

V1 – supply voltage ; I1- noload input current ;

V2- output voltgae; I2- output current
Im- magnetising current;
E1-self induced emf ; E2- mutually induced emf
Practical Transformer
• Practical transformer have some power loss
• The power consumed is called power loss. It is caused by the following:
hysteresis losses
eddy current losses
copper (I2R) losses
• Hysteresis and eddy current losses occur in the transformer's core.
• Copper losses occur in the windings.

• All three loss types involve the conversion of electrical energy into heat
energy.
Hysteresis loss
• Hysteresis loss is due to residual magnetism, which is the magnetism
that remains in a material after the magnetizing force is removed.
• The transformer core reverses magnetic polarity each time the
primary current reverses direction.
• Every time the magnetic polarity reverses, the residual magnetism of
the previous polarity has to be overcome.
• This produces heat. Hysteresis loss is the energy required to reduce
the residual magnetism to zero and occurs every half cycle just before
the core is re-magnetized in the opposite direction.
Eddy Currents
• Eddy current is the current that flows in the transformer's core and
results from the voltage that is induced in the core by the primary
winding. We know that the primary coil creates a flux that induces a
voltage in the secondary coil.
• The flux also cuts the core, and we know that when a varying flux passes
through a conductor it induces voltage.
• The core is itself a conductor. So a voltage is induced in the core as well
as in the secondary winding.
• In the core, the energy is converted to heat. Eddy current can be reduced
by laminating the transformer's core with a higher resistance material.
Copper Loss (I2R Losses)

• Copper loss is the power dissipated in the transformer windings.

Using larger conductors for the transformer windings reduces the
copper loss, but the conductor size is limited by the openings in the
core into which the winding must fit. However, larger conductors may
be required to sustain higher currents.
Phasor diagram: Transformer on No-
load
Transformer on load assuming no
voltage drop in the winding

Fig shows the Phasor diagram of a

transformer on load by assuming
1. No voltage drop in the winding
2. Equal no. of primary and secondary turns
 Transformer Tests
•The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of equivalent circuit
•The four main parameters of equivalent circuit are:
- R01 as referred to primary (or secondary R02)
- the equivalent leakage reactance X01 as referred to primary (or
secondary X02)
- Magnetising susceptance B0 ( or reactance X0)
- core loss conductance G0 (or resistance R0)
•The above constants can be easily determined by two tests
- Oper circuit test (O.C test / No load test)
- Short circuit test (S.C test/Impedance test)
•These tests are economical and convenient
- these tests furnish the result without actually loading the
transformer

Electrical Machines
Open-circuit Test

In Open Circuit Test the transformer’s secondary winding is open-circuited, and

its primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage.

V0
Core loss Woc V0 I 0 cos 0 R0 
Iw
W
cos 0  oc V0
V0 I 0 X0 
I
I c or I w I 0 cos 0
I
G0  w
• Usually conducted on I m or I  I 0 sin 0  I 02 -I w2 V0
H.V side I I
I 0 V0 Y0 ;  Yo  0 B0 
• To find V0 V0
(i) No load loss or core Woc V02G 0 ;  Exciting conductance G 0 
Woc
loss V02
(ii) No load current Io & Exciting susceptanc e B0  Y02  G02
which is helpful in
finding Go(or Ro ) and Bo
(or Xo )
Short-circuit Test
In Short Circuit Test the secondary terminals are short circuited, and the
primary terminals are connected to a fairly low-voltage source
The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited
windings is equal to its rated value. The input voltage, current and power is
measured.

• Usually conducted on L.V side

• To find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the
efficiency
(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to predetermine the
voltage regulation
Contd…

Full load cu loss Wsc I sc2 R01

Wsc
R 01 
I sc2
V
Z 01  sc
I sc
 X 01  Z 012  R012
Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input
voltage remains constant. This is because a real transformer has series
impedance within it. Full load Voltage Regulation is a quantity that
compares the output voltage at no load with the output voltage at full load,
defined by this equation:

V S ,nl VS , fl Vs
At noload k 
Regulation up  100% Vp
VS , fl
VP / k  VS , fl
V S , nl VS , fl Regulation up  x 100%
Regulation down  100% VS , fl
VS , nl VP / k  VS , fl
Regulation down  x 100%
VS , nl

Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.

Electrical Machines
 no - load voltage  full - load voltage
Voltage regulation 
no - load voltage
Vs N s
recall 
Vp N p
N 
Secondary voltage on no-load V2 V1  2 
 N1 
V2 is a secondary terminal voltage on full load

Substitute we have  N2 
V1    V2
 N1 
Voltage regulation 
 N2 
V1  
 N1 
Three Phase Transformer
• Three-phase transformers operate using the same principles: passing
an alternating current through a primary winding causes an
alternating magnetic flux in the core, which induces an alternating
voltage in the secondary winding.
• In three-phase transformers there are three primary windings and
three secondary windings.
• Some three-phase transformers include windings for all three phases
in one tank.
• Other three-phase transformers have three single-phase transformers
connected together.
3Փ Transformer
• The connection of two or more single-phase transformers as a unit is
called a transformer bank. The most common methods for
connecting the windings are:
Wye or Y (sometimes called star) connection
Delta connection

• Some methods of connecting the windings result in a voltage phase

difference between the primary and the secondary windings. This is
called a phase shift. The primary and secondary windings need not
have the same configuration.
Note: In some transformers, the neutral point
in the Y connection is grounded.
Inrush current
• When a transformeris initially connected to a source of AC voltage,
there may be a substantial surge of current through the primary
winding called inrush current
• Inrush Current Limiters are used to reduce the inrush current that
occurs when an electrical device is switched on. High inrush current is
the result of the maximum instantaneous input current drawn by an
electrical device during the initial power up.
Parallel operation of one phase and two phase transformers

• By parallel operation we mean two or more transformers are connected to the same supply
bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the secondary side. Such
requirement is frequently encountered in practice.
• The reasons that necessitate parallel operation are as follows.
1. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.
2. The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating augmentation of the
capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then be pressed into service.
3. To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or is taken
out for maintenance/repair the load can continued to be serviced.
4. To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one machine can
be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load, a spare of similar rating has to
be available. The problem of spares becomes more acute with fewer machines in service at a
location.
5. When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at site, it may be
easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in parallel.
Certain conditions have to be met before two or more transformers are
connected in parallel and share a common load satisfactorily. They are,
1. The voltage ratio must be the same.
2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be
the same.
3. The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating
current between the transformers.
4. The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference
must exist between the voltages of the two transformers.
Construction of transformer
I. Transformer core
II. Winding
III. Insulation
IV. Tank
V. Bushings
VI. Conservator and breather
VII. Tapping and tap changing
[Link] Relay
IX. Explosion vent
X. Transformer oil
Optimum design
Transformer may be designed to make one of the following quantity as minimum
i. Total volume
ii. Total weight
iii. Total cost
iv. Total loss
• All these quantities vary with ratio r = фm/ AT.
• If we choose high value of ‘r’ then flux will be high, so large cross section is
required which will increase volume, weight and cost of iron and also give higher
iron loss.
• Also due to decrease in value of ‘AT’ the volume, weight and cost of copper
decreased and also decrease in copper losses. Thus ‘r’ is a controlling factor for
above mention quantities.
Design of core
• Rectangular core: It is used for core type distribution transformer and
small power transformer for moderate and low voltages and shell
type transformers.
• In core type transformer the ratio of depth to width of core varies
between 1.4 to 2.
• In shell type transformer width of central limb is 2 to 3 times the
depth of core.
• Square and stepped cores: For high voltage transformers, where
circular coils are required, square and stepped cores are used.
Square and stepped core
Cross-section and dimensions of
Stepped cores
Choice of flux density
• The value of flux density in the core determines the core area.
• High value of flux density give smaller core area, so saving in iron cost.
Also small core area provides reduced mean turn of winding which
gives reduction in copper cost.
• But higher flux density increase iron losses resulting high temperature
rise.
• The value of flux density also depends upon service conditions of
transformer.
• A distribution transformer design with low value of flux density to
keep down the iron losses and increase in all day efficiency.
The values of maximum flux density for transformers

i. For hot rolled silicon steel

Distribution Transformer 1.1 to 1.35
Power transformer 1.25 to 1.45
ii. For CRGO core
Upto 132 kV 1.55
For 275 kV 1.6
For 400kV& Gen. Transf. 1.7 to 1.75
Design of insulation
• Electrical considerations
• Eddy current losses
• Leakage reactance
• Mechanical considerations
• Thermal consideration
Window Space Factor: It is the ratio of copper area in the window to the total
window area.
Kw = 10/(30+kV) for transformer rating 50 to 200kVA
Kw = 12/(30+kV) for rating about 1000 kVA
Kw = 8/(30+kV) for rating about 20 kVA
Window dimensions
• The area of window depend upon total conductor area and window
space factor.
• Area of window Aw = total conductor area/ window space factor
= [Link] Tp/Kw for 1-ph transformer
= [Link] Tp/Kw for 3-ph transformer
Aw = height of window x width of window = Hw xWw
The ratio of height to width of window, Hw /Ww is b/w 2 to 4.
Overall dimensions

• Single Phase Transformer

• d= diameter of circumscribing circle
• D= distance b/w centers of adjacent limbs
• H= overall height
• W= length of yoke
• D = d + Ww, Dy = a
• H = Hw + 2Hy
• W= D + a
• Width over two limbs = D + outer diameter of hv winding
• Width over one limb = outer diameter of hv winding
Common three-phase transformer connections; the
transformer windings are indicated by the heavy
lines.
• The Y- ▲ connection is commonly used in stepping down from a high voltage to a medium or
low voltage. One reason is that a neutral is thereby provided for grounding on the high-voltage
side, a procedure which can be shown to be desirable in many cases.
• Conversely, the ▲ -Y connection is commonly used for stepping up to a high voltage. The ▲-
▲ connection has the advantage that one transformer can be removed for repair or maintenance
while the remaining two continue to function as a three-phase bank with the rating reduced to
58 percent of that of the original bank; this is known as the open-delta, or V, connection. The Y-
Y connection is seldom used because of difficulties with exciting-current phenomena.
• Instead of three single-phase transformers, a three-phase bank may consist of one three-phase
transformer having all six windings on a common multi-legged core and contained in a single
tank. Advantages of three-phase transformers over connections of three single-phase
transformers are that they cost less, weigh less, require less floor space, and have somewhat
higher efficiency.
• Circuit computations involving three-phase transformer banks under balanced conditions can be
made by dealing with only one of the transformers or phases and recognizing that conditions are
the same in the other two phases except for the phase displacements associated with a three-
phase system.
• It is usually convenient to carry out the computations on a single-phase (per-phase-Y, line-to-
neutral) basis, since transformer impedances can then be added directly in series with
transmission line impedances.
• The impedances of transmission lines can be referred from one side of the transformer bank to
• ratio of the bank. In dealing with Y-▲ or ▲-Y banks, all quantities can
be referred to
• the Y-connected side. In dealing with ▲-▲ banks in series with
transmission lines, it is
• convenient to replace the ▲-connected impedances of the
transformers by equivalent
• Y-connected impedances. It can be shown that a balanced ▲ -
connected circuit of
• Z▲ f2/phase is equivalent to a balanced Y-connected circuit of Zy
f2/phase if
Types of Transformers
•Power Transformers
•Autotransformers
•Phase Shifting Transformers
•Instrument Transformers
•Distribution Transformers
Power Transformers
• Power transformer is a term given to a transformer used to transfer
power for voltages higher than 69 kV. Most power transformers are
three-phase. Power transformers can step-up or step-down the
voltage. Other capabilities can be added to a step-up or step-down
transformer, such as tap changing equipment.
 Autotransformers
• An autotransformer is a single-winding transformer with a terminal
that divides the winding into two sections. Autotransformers are
useful because they are simply constructed and cost relatively little
compared with multi-winding transformers.
• Autotransformers are variously designed to
raise or lower the voltage at
• ± 5%, ± 7.5%, or ± 10 % ranges.
Phase Shifting Transformers
• Phase shifting transformers, sometimes called phase angle regulators
(PARS), control power flow over parallel lines by adjusting the voltage
phase angle at one end of the line.
• Phase shifting transformers increase or decrease the phase angle
differences between buses. Inserting a phase shifting transformer on
a transmission line changes the power flow over the line by changing
the phase angle between locations thus redistributing the power flow.
Phase Shifting Transformers
Instrument Transformers
• In high-voltage systems, direct measurement of voltage or current is
not practical. We must scale down the values for use by meters and
relays. Instrument transformers perform this function.
• Instrument transformers include current transformers (CTs) and
potential transformers (PTs) (sometimes called voltage transformers
[VTs]). Both of these transformers reduce system current and voltage
to lower values for use by the relays and control circuitry.
Distribution Transformers
• A distribution transformer reduces voltage to a level that is usable by
customers. Distribution transformers are mounted on poles, on
concrete pads, or in underground vaults. Their operation is similar to
a power transformer.