UNIT - V
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
• Enable an airplane to be operated with max-
imum performance and enhanced safety
• Manufacturers provide the necessary flight in-
struments
• Pilots need to understand how they operate
Types
• Flight Instruments
– Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, Mach meter, Vertical
Speed Indicator, Attitude Indicator (Artificial
Horizon), Turn and Bank Indicator , Heading Indicator
• Navigation Instruments
– Accelerometer, Horizontal Situation Indicator
• Engine Instruments
– Electrical Tachometer, Oil Pressure Indicator, Exhaust
Gas Temperature,
• Pressure Gauges
– Bourdon Tube , Diaphragm Type ,Hydraulic
Flight Instruments
• They provide the pilot with information about
the flight situation of that aircraft, such as alti-
tude, speed and direction.
• Used in conditions of poor visibility, such as
in clouds, when such information is not avail-
able from visual reference outside the aircraft.
Flight Instruments
Airspeed Indicator, Attitude Indicator, Altimeter,
Turn and Bank Indicator, Heading Indicator, Vertical Speed Indicator
Pitot-Static Flight Instruments
• Two Major Parts:
– Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines
– Static Pressure Chamber and Lines
Blockage of Pitot-Static System
ALTIMETER
Effect of Temperature on an Altimeter
Types of Altitude
• Indicated Altitude : Altitude read directly from
the altimeter (uncorrected)
• True Altitude : The vertical distance of the air-
plane above sea level—the actual altitude. It is of-
ten expressed as feet above mean sea level
(MSL). Airport, terrain, and obstacle elevations
on aeronautical charts are true altitudes.
• Absolute Altitude : The vertical distance of an
airplane above the terrain, or above ground level
(AGL).
Types of Altitude
• Pressure Altitude : The altitude indicated when the al-
timeter setting window (barometric scale) is adjusted to
29.92 in. Hg (Corrected to 15°C). Pressure altitude is
used to compute density altitude, true altitude, true air-
speed, and other performance data.
• Density Altitude : Pressure altitude corrected for vari-
ations from standard temperature. When conditions are
standard, pressure altitude and density altitude are the
same. If the temperature is above standard, the density
altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If the temper-
ature is below standard, the density altitude is lower
than pressure altitude. This is an important altitude be-
cause it is directly related to the airplane’s perform-
ance.
ALTIMETER - VIDEO
AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)
Types of Airspeeds
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS) : The direct instrument reading
obtained from the airspeed indicator, uncorrected for vari-
ations in atmospheric density, installation error, or instru-
ment error
• Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) : Indicated airspeed corrected
for installation error and instrument error.
• True Airspeed (TAS) : Calibrated airspeed corrected for
altitude and nonstandard temperature.
• Groundspeed (GS) : The actual speed of the airplane over
the ground. It is true airspeed adjusted for wind. Ground-
speed decreases with a headwind, and increases with a tail-
wind.
ASI – Colour Codes
ASI – Colour Codes
• White arc—This arc is commonly referred to as the flap operat-
ing range since its lower limit represents the full flap stall speed
and its upper limit provides the maximum flap speed. Ap-
proaches and landings are usually flown at speeds within the
white arc.
• Lower limit of white arc (VS0)— The stalling speed or the min-
imum steady flight speed in the landing configuration. In small
airplanes, this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum land-
ing weight in the landing configuration (gear and flaps down).
• Upper limit of the white arc (VFE)—The maximum speed with
the flaps extended.
• Green arc—This is the normal operating range of the airplane.
Most flying occurs within this range.
ASI – Colour Codes
• Lower limit of green arc (VS1)—The stalling speed or the min-
imum steady flight speed obtained in a specified configuration.
For most airplanes, this is the power-off stall speed at the max-
imum takeoff weight in the clean configuration (gear up, if re-
tractable, and flaps up).
• Upper limit of green arc (VNO)—The maximum structural
cruising speed. Do not exceed this speed except in smooth air.
• Yellow arc—Caution range. Fly within this range only in
smooth air, and then, only with caution.
• Red line (VNE)—Never-exceed speed. Operating above this
speed is prohibited since it may result in damage or structural
failure.
ASI - VIDEO
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)
IVSI
VSI - VIDEO
Machmeter
• The older mechanical
Machmeters use an
altitude aneroid and
an airspeed capsule
which together convert
pitot-static pressure
into Mach number.
Modern electronic
Machmeters use in-
formation from an air
data computer system.
Gyroscopic Instruments
• Gyroscope : Device consist-
ing of a wheel having much
of its mass concentrated
around the rim, mounted on
a spinning axis.
Characteristics :
• Rigidity in Space : Direc-
tional reference
• Precession : Tendency of the
gyro to react to an applied
force 900 in the direction of
rotation from the point the
force is applied.
Principle
• Rigidity in Space
• Principle that a gyroscope remains in a fixed position in the
plane in which it is spinning
• By mounting this wheel, or gyroscope, on a set
of Gimbal rings, the gyro is able to rotate freely in any dir-
ection.
– If the gimbal rings are tilted, twisted, or otherwise
moved, the gyro remains in the plane in which it was
originally.
– Think of the gyro as being aligned with the horizon, and
the airplane rotates around it.
• Stability increases if the rotor has great mass and speed
– Approximately 15,000 rpm for the attitude indicator and
10,000 rpm for the heading indicator
Principle
• Gyroscopic Preces-
sion
Whenever a force attempts
to tilt the plane of rotation,
the force is applied 90 de-
grees ahead of, and in the
direction of rotation
– Inversely proportional
to the speed of the rotor
and proportional to the
deflective force
Power Sources
• Vacuum System:
Runs the Attitude Indic-
ator and Heading Indic-
ator
– Engine Driven vacuum
pump creates suction
through system
– Air sucked through sys-
tem is diverted over
"buckets" in gyroscope
walls to turn gyros
– Semi-frictionless design
Power Sources
• Electrical System:
The turn coordinator uses an electrical gyro so
that in the event of a vacuum system failure,
the pilot still has one working gyroscopic in-
strument
Gyroscopic Instruments
• Turn and Bank Indicator
(or) Turn Coordinator
• Attitude Indicator
(or)Artificial Horizon
• Heading Indicator
Turn and Bank Indicator
• Uses an electric gyroscope to give pilot information
about rate of turn and rate of roll
– Tells us direction and how quickly we are rolling initially
– Then tells us rate of turn, or how many degrees per second
• Markings at "Standard Rate Turn", which the airplane
will turn 360 degrees in 2 minutes
• Gyroscope mounted diagonally, balanced by a spring,
and works by precession to sense bank angle
• Inclinometer (ball)
– Separate instrument used to measure quality of turn
– Ball on the inside of turn indicates a slipping turn
– Ball on the outside of turn indicates a skidding turn
Turn and Bank Indicator
Inclinometer
Inclinometer (ball)
Separate instrument used to measure quality of turn
Ball on the inside of turn indicates a slipping turn
Ball on the outside of turn indicates a skidding turn
Attitude Indicator (or) Artificial Horizon
• Provides an artificial horizon to the pilot to
display information about both pitch and bank
• Gyroscope has two gimbals that the aircraft
can rotate about for pitch and bank
• 10,20,30,60,90 degree markings for bank
• Pitch angle is indicated by a series of lines,
each representing 5° or 10° of pitch
• Pilot can set where the miniature airplane
meets the horizon before takeoff
Attitude Indicator
Heading Indicator
• There are a number of errors when using the magnetic
compass. The gyroscopic heading indicator makes it
easy to turn to headings.
• Unfortunately, the heading indicator does not seek
magnetic north by itself
• Vertically mounted gyroscope with one gimbal gives us
heading information
– We set where the gyroscope considers north with the knob
and it tells us heading as we rotate around it.
Errors
• Drift
– Because the earth rotates and because of small accumulated
errors caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the
gyro, the Heading Indicator will drift over time
– Must be set every 15 min
Heading Indicator
NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS
Accelerometer
• It is used on new airplanes during test flights to mea-
sure the acceleration loads on the aircraft structure.
• Serves as the basis for stress analysis as it gives an ac-
curate indication of stresses imposed on airplane dur-
ing flight.
• It measures accelerations exerted on airplane in gravity
units.
• It indicates change only along the aircraft vertical axis
• It is graduated in gravity units from -5g to +12g.
• Vertical acceleration can be illustrated by carrying a
heavy parcel in elevator
Accelerometer
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
• It combines the information supplied by heading
indicator with radio navigation
information(VOR/ILS)
• It reduces eye motion of pilot
• Electrically or Pneumatically driven gyro for
heading indicator
• Information from navigation radio is displayed
through a deviation bar and selected course
pointer
• When gyro is operating properly, the flag (NAV,
HDG, GS) is retracted out of sight
HSI
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
Electrical Tachometer System
• They are used on large aircraft – distance from engine
to instrument panel makes Mechanical tachometer
impractical
• 3 phase AC alternator to generate signal
• The signal drives a synchronous motor inside the in-
strument – the motor synchronizes its speed with al-
ternator
• The motor turns the drag cup
• Drag cup positions the needle on the face of the in-
strument
Electrical Tachometer System
Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator (EGT)
• It is a primary instrument for monitoring turbine en-
gine operation
• They are used to monitor the performance of the en-
gines and make flight and maintenance adjustments.
• The system operate by placing thermocouples in the
stream of exhaust gases exiting the engine.
• The thermocouple generate the current, which drives
the indicator.
• The amount of current is very low and is amplified or
adjusted in order to drive the indicator display.
Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator (EGT)
• If Multiple probes are used, a selector switch
on the instrument is used to allow selection of
the cylinder being monitored.
• In turbine engine, system uses several probes
in parallel.
• The average reading of the temperature and
the indication does not change substantially if
one probe should fail.
Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator (EGT)
Oil Pressure Indicator
• It can be mechanically operated or electrically pow-
ered.
• A Mechanically operated gauge uses an oil-pressure
line from the engine to the instrument to operate a
bourdon tube and gear segment to position the indica-
tor needle.
• Restrictor in oil line prevent rapid oil loss if line
breaks.
• Light oil is used in line between gauge and engine for
quick response.
Oil Pressure Indicator
• Electric oil pressure sensors use pressure sensor on
the engine, it varies its resistance as pressure changes.
• The pressure signal generated is processed and indi-
cated in the cockpit display.
PRESSURE GAUGES
Bourdon – Tube Pressure Gauge
• The bourdon tube is made of spring tempered brass, bronze or
beryllium copper.
• They have strong spring effect that cause the bourdon tube to
return to its original position when pressure is released.
• When pressure enters the bourdon tube, the tube tends to
straighten out
• This move the mechanical linkage connected to the sector gear
• The movement of sector gear causes spur gear to rotate and in
turn moves the indicating needle along the scale.
Bourdon – Tube Pressure Gauge
Hydraulic Pressure Gauge
• A pressure gauge to measure the differential pressure in
the hydraulic system indicates how this system is func-
tioning.
• Hydraulic pressure gauges are designed to indicate
either the pressure of the complete system or the pres-
sure of an individual unit in the system.
• The case of this gauge contains a Bourdon tube and a
gear-and-pinion mechanism by which the Bourdon
tube’s motion is amplified and transferred to the pointer.
• The position of the pointer on the calibrated dial indic-
ates the hydraulic pressure in p.s.i.
Hydraulic Pressure Gauge
Diaphragm Type Pressure Gauge
• It is a differential- pressure measuring device
• They use a diaphragm for measuring pressure
• The pressure or suction to be measured is admitted to the
pressure-sensitive diaphragm through an opening in the
back of the instrument case
• An opposing pressure, such as that of the atmosphere, is
admitted through a vent in the case
Diaphragm Type Pressure Gauge
• The walls of the diaphragm are very thin, an increase of
pressure will cause it to expand, and a decrease in pres-
sure will cause it to contract.
• Any movement of the diaphragm is transferred to the
pointer by means of the rocker shaft, sector, and pinion,
which are connected to the front side of the diaphragm.
Diaphragm Type Pressure Gauge