Chapter 44
Nuclear Structure
Milestones in the Development
of Nuclear Physics
1896: the birth of nuclear physics
Becquerel discovered radioactivity in uranium
compounds
Rutherford showed the radiation had three
types:
alpha (He nuclei)
beta (electrons)
gamma (high-energy photons)
More Milestones
1911 Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden
performed scattering experiments
Established that the nucleus could be treated as a
point mass and a point charge
Most of the atomic mass was contained in the
nucleus
Nuclear force was a new type of force
Some Properties of Nuclei
All
nuclei are composed of protons and
neutrons
Exception is ordinary hydrogen with a single
proton
The atomic number Z equals the number of
protons in the nucleus
Sometimes called the charge number
The neutron number N is the number of
neutrons in the nucleus
More Properties of Nuclei
Themass number A is the number of
nucleons in the nucleus
A=Z+N
Nucleon is a generic term used to refer to either a
proton or a neutron
The mass number is not the same as the mass
Symbolism
A
Z X
X is the chemical symbol of the element
Example:
27
13 Al
Mass number is 27
Atomic number is 13
Contains 13 protons
Contains 14 (27 – 13) neutrons
The Z may be omitted since the element can be
used to determine Z
More Properties
The nuclei of all atoms of a particular element
must contain the same number of protons
They may contain varying numbers of
neutrons
Isotopes of an element have the same Z but
differing N and A values
The natural abundance of isotopes can vary
Isotope example:
11 12 13 14
6 C, 6 C, 6 C, 6 C
Charge
The proton has a single positive charge, e
The electron has a single negative charge,
-e
The neutron has no charge
Made it difficult to detect in early experiments
Easy to detect with modern devices
e = 1.602 177 33 x 10-19 C
Mass
Itis convenient to use atomic mass units, u,
to express masses
1 u = 1.660 539 x 10-27 kg
Based on definition that the mass of one atom of
12
C is exactly 12 u
Mass can also be expressed in MeV/c2
From ER = mc2
1 u = 931.494 MeV/c2
Includes conversion 1 eV = 1.602 177 x 10 -19 J
Some Masses in Various Units
The Size of the Nucleus
First investigated by Rutherford in scattering experiments
He found an expression for how close an alpha particle
moving toward the nucleus can come before being turned
around by the Coulomb force
From conservation of energy, the kinetic energy of the particle
must be completely converted to potential energy
Size of the Nucleus, cont.
d is called the distance of closest approach
d gives an upper limit for the size of the nucleus
Rutherford determined that
Ze 2
d 4 k e
mv 2
For gold, he found d = 3.2 x 10-14 m
More About Size
Rutherfordconcluded that the positive charge
of the atom was concentrated in a sphere
whose radius was no larger than about 10-14
m
He called this sphere the nucleus
Thesesmall lengths are often expressed in
femtometers (fm) where 1 fm = 10-15 m
Also called a fermi
Size of Nucleus, Final
Sincethe time of Rutherford, many other
experiments have concluded the following:
Most nuclei are approximately spherical
Average radius is
r ro A 1 3
ro = 1.2 x 10-15 m
A is the mass number
Nuclear Stability
There are very large repulsive electrostatic forces
between protons
These forces should cause the nucleus to fly apart
The nuclei are stable because of the presence of
another, short-range force, called the nuclear
force
This is an attractive force that acts between all nuclear
particles
The nuclear attractive force is stronger than the
Coulomb repulsive force at the short ranges within the
nucleus
Features of the Nuclear Force
Attractive force that acts between all nuclear
particles
Very short range
It falls to zero when the separation between
particles exceeds about several fermis
Independent of charge
The nuclear force on p-p, p-n, n-n are all the
same
Does not affect electrons
Nuclear Stability, cont.
Light nuclei are most stable
if N = Z
Heavy nuclei are most
stable when N > Z
Above about Z = 20
As the number of protons
increases, the Coulomb
force increases and so
more neutrons are needed
to keep the nucleus stable
No nuclei are stable when Z
> 83
Binding Energy
The total energy of the bound system (the
nucleus) is less than the combined energy of
the separated nucleons
This difference in energy is called the binding
energy of the nucleus
It can be thought of as the amount of energy you need
to add to the nucleus to break it apart into its
components
Binding Energy, cont.
The binding energy can be calculated from
conservation of energy and the Einstein
mass-energy equivalence principle:
Eb (MeV) = [ZM(H) + Nmn – M (AZX)] x
931.494 MeV/u
M(H) is the atomic mass of the neutral hydrogen atom
M (AZX) represents the atomic mass of an atom of the
isotope (AZX)
Mn is the mass of the neutron
The masses are expressed in atomic mass units
Binding Energy per Nucleon
Notes from the Graph
The curve peaks in the vicinity of A = 60
Nuclei with mass numbers greater than or less than
60 are not as strongly bound as those near the middle
of the periodic table
Thereis a decrease in binding energy per
nucleon for A > 60
Energy is released when a heavy nucleus splits or
fissions
Energy is released since each product nucleus are more
tightly bound to one another than are the nucleons of the
original nucleus
More Notes from the Graph
The binding energy is about 8 MeV per
nucleon for nuclei with A > 50
This suggests that the nuclear force
saturates
A particular nucleon can interact with only a
limited number of other nucleons
62
28 has the largest binding energy per
Ni
nucleon
Nuclear Models
Two models of the nucleus will be discussed
Liquid-drop model
Provides good agreement with observed nuclear
binding energies
Shell model
Predicts the existence of stable nuclei
Liquid-Drop Model
Nucleons are treated like molecules in a drop
of liquid
The nucleons interact strongly with one
another
They undergo frequent collisions as they
jiggle around in the nucleus
The jiggling motion is analogous to the
thermally agitated motion of molecules in a
drop of liquid
Liquid-Drop Model – Effects
Influencing Binding Energy, 1
The volume effect
The nuclear force on a given nucleon is due only
to a few nearest neighbors and not to all the other
nucleons in the nucleus
The total binding energy is proportional to A and
therefore proportional to the nuclear volume
This contribution to the binding energy of the
entire nucleus is C1A
C1 is an adjustable constant
Liquid-Drop Model –
Binding Energy Effect 2
The surface effect
Nucleons on the surface have fewer neighbors
than those in the interior
Surface nucleons reduce the binding energy by
an amount proportional to their number
The number of nucleons is proportional to the
surface area
The surface term can be expressed as –C 2A2/3
C2 is a second adjustable constant
Liquid-Drop Model –
Binding Energy Effect 3
The Coulomb repulsion effect
Each proton repels every other proton in the
nucleus
The potential energy associated with the Coulomb
force is proportional to the number of protons, Z
The reduction in the binding energy due to the
Coulomb effect is –C3Z(Z - 1)/A1/3
C3 is another adjustable constant
Liquid-Drop Model –
Binding Energy Effect 4
The symmetry effect
Any large symmetry between N and Z for light nuclei
reduces the binding energy
For larger A, the value of N for stable nuclei is larger
The effect can be described by a binding energy term in
the form –C4(N - Z)2 / A
For small A, any large asymmetry between N and Z makes
the term large
For large A, the A in the denominator reduces the value of
the term so that it has little effect on the overall binding
energy
C is another adjustable constant
4
Liquid-Drop Model – Binding
Energy Effect Summary
Putting
these terms together results in the
semiempirical binding-energy formula:
Z Z 1 N Z
2
2 3
E b C1A C2 A C3 C4
A1 3 A
The four constants are adjusted to fit the
theoretical expression to the experimental
data
For A 15, C1 = 15.7 MeV; C2 = 17.8 MeV; C3 =
0.71 MeV; and C4 = 23.6 MeV
Liquid Drop Model, Final
The equation fits the known nuclear mass
values very well
Does not account for some of the finer details
of nuclear structure
Stability
Angular momentum
Features of Binding Energy
When binding energies are studied closely it
is found that:
Most stable nuclei have an even value of A
Only 8 stable nuclei have odd values for both A and Z
There is a difference between the binding energy
per nucleon given by the semiempirical formula
and experiments
Features of Binding Energy –
Magic Numbers
The disagreement between the semiempirical formula
and experiments is plotted
Peaks appear in the graph
These peaks are at the magic numbers of
Z or N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 52, 82
Features of Binding Energy,
cont.
Studiesof nuclear radii show deviations from
the expected values
Graphs of the data show peaks at values of N
equal to the magic numbers
A group of isotones is a collection of nuclei
having the same value of N and different
values of Z
When the number of stable isotones is graphed as
a function of N, there are peaks at the magic
numbers
Features of Binding Energy,
final
Several other nuclear measurements show
anomalous behavior at the magic numbers
The peaks are reminiscent of the peaks in
graphs of ionization energy of atoms and lead
to the shell model of the nucleus
Maria Goeppert-Mayer
1906 – 1972
German scientist
Best known for her
development of the shell
model of the nucleus
Shared the Nobel Prize in
1963
Shared with Hans Jensen
who simultaneously
developed a similar model
Shell Model
The shell model is also called the independent-
particle model
In this model, each nucleon is assumed to exist in a
shell
Similar to atomic shells for electrons
The nucleons exist in quantized energy states
There are few collisions between nucleons
Shell Model, cont.
Each state can contain
only two protons or two
neutrons
They must have opposite
spins
They have spins of ½, so
the exclusion principle
applies
The set of allowed states
for the protons differs from
the set of allowed states
for the neutrons
Shell Model, final
Proton energy levels are farther apart than
those for neutrons due to the superposition of
the Coulomb force and the nuclear force for
the protons
The spin-orbit effect for nucleons is due to
the nuclear force
The spin-orbit effect influences the observed
characteristics of the nucleus
Shell Model Explanation of
Experimental Results
Nuclei
with even numbers of protons and
neutrons are more stable
Any particular state is filled when it contains two
protons or two neutrons
An extra proton or neutron can be added only at
the expense of increasing the nucleus’s energy
This increase in energy leads to greater instability
in the nucleus
Shell Model Explanation of
Experimental Results, cont.
Nuclei
tend to have more neutrons than
protons
Proton energy levels are higher
As Z increases and higher states are filled, a proton level
for a given quantum number will be much higher in energy
than the neutron level for the same quantum number
It is more energetically favorable for the nucleus to form
with neutrons in the lower energy levels than protons in the
higher levels
So, the number of neutrons is greater than the number of
protons
Marie Curie
1867 – 1934
Polish scientist
Shared Nobel Prize in 1903
for studies in radioactive
substances
Prize in physics
Shared with Pierre Curie
and Becquerel
Won Nobel Prize in 1911 for
discovery of radium and
polonium
Prize in chemistry
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of
radiation
Discovered by Becquerel in 1896
Many experiments were conducted by Becquerel
and the Curies
Experiments suggested that radioactivity was
the result of the decay, or disintegration, of
unstable nuclei
Radioactivity – Types
Three types of radiation can be emitted
Alpha particles
The particles are 4He nuclei
Beta particles
The particles are either electrons or positrons
A positron is the antiparticle of the electron
It is similar to the electron except its charge is +e
Gamma rays
The “rays” are high energy photons
Distinguishing Types of
Radiation
The gamma particles carry
no charge
The alpha particles are
deflected upward
The beta particles are
deflected downward
A positron would be
deflected upward, but
would follow a different
trajectory than the α due to
its mass
Penetrating Ability of Particles
Alpha particles
Barely penetrate a piece of paper
Beta particles
Can penetrate a few mm of aluminum
Gamma rays
Can penetrate several cm of lead
The Decay Constant
The number of particles that decay in a given
time is proportional to the total number of
particles in a radioactive sample
dN
λN gives N Noe λt
dt
λ is called the decay constant and determines the
rate at which the material will decay
N is the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei
present
No is the number of undecayed nuclei at time t = 0
Decay Curve
The decay curve follows the
equation N = Noe-λt
The half-life is also a useful
parameter
The half-life is defined as
the time interval during
which half of a given
number of radioactive
nuclei decay
ln 2 0 .693
T1 2
λ λ
Decay Rate
The decay rate R of a sample is defined as
the number of decays per second
dN
R λN Ro e λt
dt
Ro = Noλ is the decay rate at t = 0
The decay rate is often referred to as the activity
of the sample
Units
The unit of activity, R, is the curie (Ci)
1 Ci ≡ 3.7 x 1010 decays/s
The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq)
1 Bq ≡ 1 decay/s
Therefore, 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
Themost commonly used units of activity are
the millicurie and the microcurie
Alpha Decay
When a nucleus emits an alpha particle it
loses two protons and two neutrons
N decreases by 2
Z decreases by 2
A decreases by 4
Symbolically A
X A 4
Y 42 H e
Z Z 2
X is called the parent nucleus
Y is called the daughter nucleus
Decay – General Rules
The sum of the mass numbers A must be the
same on both sides of the equation
The sum of the atomic numbers Z must be
the same on both sides of the equation
When one element changes into another
element, the process is called spontaneous
decay or transmutation
Relativistic energy and momentum of the
isolated parent nucleus must be conserved
Disintegration Energy
The disintegration energy Q of a system is
defined as
Q = (Mx – My – Mα)c2
The disintegration energy appears in the form
of kinetic energy in the daughter nucleus and
the alpha particle
It is sometimes referred to as the Q value of
the nuclear decay
Alpha Decay, Example
Decay of 226 Ra
226 222
88 Ra 86 R n 24 H e
If the parent is at rest before
the decay, the total kinetic
energy of the products is
4.87 MeV
In general, less massive
particles carry off more of
the kinetic energy
Alpha Decay, Notes
Experimental observations of alpha-particle
energies show a number of discrete energies
instead of a single value
The daughter nucleus may be left in an excited
quantum state
So, not all of the energy is available as kinetic energy
A negative Q value indicates that such a
proposed decay does not occur
spontaneously
Beta Decay
During beta decay, the daughter nucleus has
the same number of nucleons as the parent,
but the atomic number is changed by one
Symbolically
A
Z X A
Y e
Z 1
A
Z X A
Y e
Z 1
Beta decay is not completely described by these
equations
Beta Decay, cont.
Theemission of the electron or positron is
from the nucleus
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons
The process occurs when a neutron is
transformed into a proton or a proton changes
into a neutron
The electron or positron is created in the process of
the decay
Energy must be conserved
Beta Decay – Particle Energy
The energy released in the
decay process should
almost all go to kinetic
energy of the β particle
Since the decaying nuclei
all have the same rest
mass, the Q value should
be the same for all decays
Experiments showed a
range in the amount of
kinetic energy of the emitted
particles
Were conservation laws
violated?
Neutrino
To account for this “missing” energy, in 1930 Pauli
proposed the existence of another particle
Enrico Fermi later named this particle the neutrino
Properties of the neutrino
Zero electrical charge
Mass much smaller than the electron, probably not zero
Spin of ½
Very weak interaction with matter and so is difficult to
detect
Beta Decay – Completed
Symbolically
A
Z X A
Z 1Y e ν
A
Z X A
Y e ν
Z 1
is the symbol for the neutrino
ν is the symbol for the antineutrino
Tosummarize, in beta decay, the following
pairs of particles are emitted
An electron and an antineutrino
A positron and a neutrino
Beta Decay – Examples
Beta Decay, Final Notes
The fundamental process of e- decay is a
neutron changing into a proton, an electron
and an antineutrino
In e+, the proton changes into a neutron,
positron and neutrino
This can only occur within a nucleus
It cannot occur for an isolated proton since its
mass is less than the mass of the neutron
Electron Capture
Electron capture is a process that competes
with e+ decay
In this case, a parent nucleus captures one of
its own orbital electrons and emits a neutrino:
A 0 A
Z X 1 e Z 1Y ν
In most cases, a K-shell electron is captured, so
this is often referred to as K capture
Electron Capture, Detection
Because the neutrino is very hard to detect,
electron capture is usually observed by the x-
rays given off as higher-shell electrons
cascade downward to fill the vacancy created
in the K shell
Q Values for Beta Decay
For e- decay and electron capture, the Q value is Q
= (Mx – MY)c2
For e+ decay, the Q value is
Q = (Mx – MY - 2me)c2
The extra term, -2mec2, is due to the fact that the atomic
number of the parent decreases by one when the daughter
is formed
To form a neutral atom, the daughter sheds one electron
If Q is negative, the decay will not occur
Gamma Decay
Gamma rays are given off when an excited
nucleus decays to a lower energy state
The decay occurs by emitting a high-energy
photon called gamma-ray photons
A A
Z X* X γ
Z
The X* indicates a nucleus in an excited state
Typical half-life is 10-10 s
Gamma Decay – Example
Example of a decay sequence
The first decay is a beta emission
The second step is a gamma emission
12 12
5 B 6 C* e ν
12 12
6 C* 6 Cγ
Gamma emission doesn’t change Z, N, or A
The emitted photon has an energy of hƒ equal to
E between the two nuclear energy levels
Summary of Decays
Natural Radioactivity
Classification of nuclei
Unstable nuclei found in nature
Give rise to natural radioactivity
Nuclei produced in the laboratory through nuclear reactions
Exhibit artificial radioactivity
Three series of natural radioactivity exist
Uranium
Actinium
Thorium
Some radioactive isotopes are not part of any decay
series
Radioactive Series, Overview
Decay Series of 232Th
Series starts with 232Th
Processes through a
series of alpha and beta
decays
The series branches at
212
Bi
Ends with a stable isotope
of lead, 208Pb
Nuclear Reactions
The
structure of nuclei can be changed by
bombarding them with energetic particles
The changes are called nuclear reactions
Aswith nuclear decays, the atomic numbers
and mass numbers must balance on both
sides of the equation
Nuclear Reactions, cont.
A target nucleus, X, is bombarded by a
particle a, resulting in a daughter nucleus Y
and an outgoing particle b
a+XY+b
Thereaction energy Q is defined as the total
change in mass-energy resulting from the
reaction
Q = (Ma + MX – MY – Mb)c2
Q Values for Reactions
The Q value determines the type of reaction
An exothermic reaction
There is a mass “loss” in the reaction
There is a release of energy
Q is positive
An endothermic reaction
There is a “gain” of mass in the reaction
Energy is needed, in the form of kinetic energy of the
incoming particles
Q is negative
The minimum energy necessary for the reaction to occur is
called the threshold energy
Nuclear Reactions, final
Ifa and b are identical, so that X and Y are
also necessarily identical, the reaction is
called a scattering event
If the kinetic energy before the event is the same
as after, it is classified as elastic scattering
If the kinetic energies before and after are not the
same, it is an inelastic scattering
Conservation Rules for
Nuclear Reactions
Thefollowing must be conserved in any
nuclear reaction
Energy
Momentum
Total charge
Total number of nucleons