MME 195

MATERIAL ENGINEERING - I

MD. MUKTADIR BILLAH, Ph.D. (MSE,, UCF,

USA)
Professor
MME, BUET
 Mechanical
Properties of
Materials
Ref. Materials Science and
TOPIC 1 Engineering
An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter 6
& 8)
Tension Tests
• “Dog-bone” specimen:
Deformation is confined to the
narrow center region, reduces
likelihood of fracture at ends of
the specimen.
• Reduced section length should be
at least four times the diameter.
• Tensile testing machine is
designed to elongate the specimen
at a constant rate.
 Tension Tests:
Elastic • Elastic deformation (non-permanent):
Deformation Deformation in which stress and strain
are usually proportional

• Engineering stress

• Engineering strain
• Hooke’s law: Modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus
(stiffness, or a material’s
resistance to elastic
deformation)
Tension Tests: Elastic
Deformation
 Tension Tests: Elastic
Deformation

• Young’s modulus • Tangent or secant modulus

 Tension Tests: Elastic
Deformation

• Poisson’s ratio
 Tension Tests: Plastic
Deformation (permanent)

• Yielding and Yield Strength: • Tensile Strength

Elastic–plastic transition
• Safe stress
Compression Tests
 Tension and Compression Tests:
Ductility
• A measure of degree of plastic
deformation that has been
sustained at fracture.
• A metal that experiences very
little or no plastic deformation
upon fracture is termed brittle.
• May be expressed
quantitatively as either percent
elongation or percent reduction
in area.
• Brittle materials are
approximately considered to be
those having a fracture strain of
less than about 5%.
 Ductile to Brittle Transition
• Sinking of Titanic was caused primarily
by brittleness of steel used to construct
the hull of the ship. In icy water of the
Atlantic, steel was below ductile to
brittle transition temperature. In these
conditions even a small impact could
have caused a large amount of damage.
Compression Tests
 Shear and Torsion Tests

• Shear stress

• Shear strain, γ = tanθ • Torsion test

Flexural or Bend Tests
Flexural or Bend Tests
 Resilience
• Resilience is the capacity
of a material to absorb
energy when it is
deformed elastically.

• Modulus of resilience

• Modulus of resilience
for linear elastic
behavior
 Toughness

• Toughness is as the ability of a

material to absorb energy and
plastically deform before fracturing.
Impact (toughness) Tests: Charpy
and Izod
True Stress and Strain
 Hardness
• Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation
(e.g., a small dent or a scratch)
 Hardness
• Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a metal’s resistance to plastic deformation.
• Consequently, they are roughly proportional for tensile strength as a function of the HB for cast
iron, steel, and brass. The same
• proportionality relationship does not hold for all metals,
 Malleability
• Malleability is the quality or state of being malleable: Capability of being shaped
or extended by hammering, forging, etc.
 Fracture
• Ductile Fracture

• Brittle Fracture
 Fatigue
• Failure that occurs due to dynamic and fluctuating stresses.
• Failure occurs at a stress level considerably lower than tensile
or yield strength.
• fatigue limit (endurance limit): Below which fatigue failure
will not occur.
• Fatigue life: It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a
specified stress level.
 Creep
• Defined as time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when
subjected to a constant load or stress.
 The Structure of
Crystalline Solids
Ref. Materials Science and

TOPIC 2 Engineering
An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter
3)
 Lattice and
Crystal
Structure
• Crystal structure means regular
arrangement of atoms or molecules.
“Regular” implies existence of
something that repeats itself,
“arrangement” implies presence of a
pattern.
• It is convenient to ignore actual atoms
composing the crystal and their periodic
arrangement in space, and to think
instead of a set of imaginary points
which has a fixed relation in space to the
atoms of the crystal and which may be
regarded as a sort of framework or
skeleton on which the actual crystal is
built.
 Unit Cell
• Since all the cells of the lattice
shown are identical, we may choose
any one as a unit cell.
• The size and shape of the unit cell
can in turn be described by the
three vectors a, b, and c drawn from
one corner of the cell taken as
origin.
• These vectors define the cell and
are called the crystallographic axes
of the cell.
• They may also be described in terms
of their lengths (a, b, c) and the
angles between them (α, β, γ).
• These lengths and angles are the
lattice constants or lattice
parameters of the unit cell.
The Four 2-D
Crystal Systems
• If we take arbitrary values for all
three parameters, then we end up
with oblique net {a, b, γ}.
• When γ = 90◦, the unit cell of a net
becomes a rectangle {a, b, γ = 90◦}.
• When a = b and γ = 90◦, the unit cell
of a net becomes a square {a, a, γ =
90◦}.
• When a = b and γ = 60◦, the unit cell
of a net becomes a hexagonal {a, b, γ
= 60◦}.
 THE
SEVEN 3-D
CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS
 THE SEVEN
3-D CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS:
TRICLINIC/
ANORTHIC
 THE SEVEN
3-D CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS:
MONOCLINIC
 THE SEVEN
3-D CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS:
HEXAGONAL
 THE SEVEN
3-D CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS:
RHOMBOHEDRA
L/
TRIGONAL
 THE SEVEN
3-D CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS:
ORTHORHOMBIC
 THE SEVEN
3-D CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS:
TETRAGONAL
 THE SEVEN
3-D CRYSTAL
SYSTEMS:
CUBIC
SYMMETRY
ELEMENTS
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System
Cubic Crystal System: Van der Waals
Surface
cP, tP & oP Crystal System (Pearson
symbol)
cP, tP & oP Crystal System (Pearson
symbol)
The Five 2-D Bravais Nets
The Fourteen 3-D Bravais Nets
The Fourteen 3-D Bravais Nets
The Fourteen 3-D Bravais Nets
 Atomic Packing Factor
•The filling factor of a crystal structure is defined as the fraction of the total crystal volume
filled with atoms considered hard spheres.
•Sometimes instead of filling factor the expressions “atomic packing factor” or “packing
fraction” are used.
•The filling factor gives us an idea how close “the atoms are packed” in the crystal structure.
•In conclusion, the filling factor together with the coordination number give us an idea
about the degree of filling the crystal volume with atoms, and, at the same time, tells us
how close the atoms in a crystal are packed.
Atomic Packing Factor
SC
Atomic Packing Factor
BCC
SC
Atomic Packing Factor
BCC
FCC SC
 Nearest Neighbor (NN = 6)

SC
 Next Nearest Neighbor (NNN =
12)

SC
 NN = 8 & NNN = 6

BCC
 NN = 12 & NNN = 6

FCC
Linear Density : SC
Linear Density : BCC
Linear Density : FCC
Planar Density : SC (100) Plane
Planar Density : SC (110) Plane
Planar Density : SC (111) Plane
Planar Density : BCC (100) Plane
Planar Density : BCC (110) Plane
Planar Density : BCC (111) Plane
Planar Density : FCC (100) Plane
Planar Density : FCC (110) Plane
Planar Density : FCC (111) Plane
 Crystallographic
Points, Directions
and Planes
Ref. Materials Science and
TOPIC 3 Engineering
An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter
3)
Points, Directions and Planes
• Miller indices are used to specify directions and planes.
• These directions and planes could be in lattices or in crystals.
• Indices of crystallographic points, directions, and planes are given in
terms of the lattice constants of the unit cell.
• For points and directions, consider the indices to be coefficients of the
lattice constants.
• Only need to invert the indices for planes.
• It is essential to label axes, lattice constants, and identifying information
for directions (vector arrowhead) and planes (axes intercepts) in order
to receive full credit.
Points
• Labeling points in a unit cell follows the same procedure for listing points
in any Cartesian coordinate system.
• The indices used to refer to points are q, r, and s.
• They are listed without commas, parentheses, or brackets.
• Consider point P, in Figure.
• If you were standing at the origin of the unit cell, you could travel q · a in
the x-direction, r · y in the y-direction, and s · c in the z-direction to get to
point P.
• Thus, we point P corresponds to the q r s point coordinates.
Points
To find q, r, and s when you are shown a drawing with a point:
• Start with your pencil at the origin.
•Count the number lattice constants you must move in the x-, y-, and z-
directions to reach the point.
•Write the point as q, r, s without parentheses, or brackets.
•Do not convert the coordinates to reduced integers. The point in the BCC
structure is not the same as the 1 1 1 point.
Points
Points
Directions
To draw a direction given the [u v w] indices:
•Choose a point for the origin of your vector.
•Simple directions are easy to draw using the 0 0 0 crystallographic point as
the origin.
•For more complicated directions, it is more convenient to translate (add or
subtract) or scale (multiply or divide) the indices of the direction.
•If you translate your origin to the point 0 0 1 for example, the tail of your
direction vector will be at this point.
•Start with your pencil on your chosen origin.
•Move your pencil u · a in the x-direction, v · b in the y-direction, and w · c in
the z-direction.
•If u, v, or w, are negative, move in the negative direction on that axis.
•Draw and label a point.
•Draw a line from your chosen origin to the point you just drew.
•Add an arrowhead at the point.
Directions
•It is extremely important when drawing directions that you label the
point that lies at the end of your direction vector.
•It is also highly preferred that you shift the origin and scale of the
direction vector so that it is contained inside the unit cell.
•If you shifted the origin, a way to check that you drew your direction
properly is to subtract the point coordinates of the arrowhead from those
of its tail.
•The resulting indices should be [u v w].
Directions
To write the [u v w] indices given a drawing of a direction:
•Place your pencil at the tail of the given vector.
•Count how many lattice constants you must move in the x-, y-, and z-directions
to reach the head of the vector.
•Write them down. Be mindful of negatives.
•If necessary, multiply by a common number to make the indices integers.
•Rewrite the indices and enclose them in square brackets [u v w].
Family of Directions

• Directions having similar

indices are equivalent, e.g.,
faces of the cube [1 0 0], [0 1
0] and [0 0 1].
• This is termed as a family of
planes and denoted as <1 0
0> which includes all the [1 0
0] combinations including
negative indices.
Directions
Directions
Directions
Directions
Planes
To draw a plane given the (h k l) indices:
•Find the reciprocal of (h k l). If one or more of the indices is zero, consider the
reciprocal to be infinity. The values and are the intercepts of the x-, y-, and z-
axes, respectively. If one or more intercept is infinity, this means that the plane
will never intercept that axis (it is parallel to that axis). For the (2 2 1) plane, the
reciprocals would be,
•For all non-zero indices, draw a point on the x-axis at, a point on the y-axis at,
and a point on the z-axis at.
•Connect the dots.
Planes
To list the (h k l) indices given a drawing of a plane:
•Check to see if the plane goes through the origin. If not, proceed to step 2. If it
does, shift the plane 1 lattice constant in an axis such that it no longer passes
through the origin. This new plane is equivalent to the first.
•Find the coefficients by which you would multiply the lattice constants to identify
where the plane intercepts the x-, y-, and z-axes. Be mindful of negative
intercepts. If the plane doesn’t intercept an axis (it is parallel to that axis), call the
intercept infinity. Write down these values.
•Take the reciprocal of these intercepts. If necessary, multiply or divide by a
common number to put the indices in the most reduced integer form. Sometimes
you will be asked to leave the indices unreduced - for example, (2 2 0) instead of
(1 1 0) - for use in x-ray diffraction questions.
•Enclose the indices in parentheses without commas (h k l). It is extremely
important when drawing planes that you label where the plane intersects the
axes.
Planes
Planes
 • Planes having similar indices are equivalent, e.g. faces of the
cube (1 0 0), (0 1 0) and (0 0 1). This is termed as a family of
planes and denoted as {1 0 0} which includes all the (1 0 0)
combinations including negative indices.
• Thus, planes of {1 0 0} are (1 0 0), (0 1 0), (0 0 1), ( 0 0), (0 0)
and (0 0).
Family of • So, multiplicity factor for {1 0 0} is 6.
Planes/ • Multiplicity factor for {1 1 0} is 12 and the planes are (1 1 0), (1 0
1), (0 1 1), ( 1 0), ( 0 1), (0 1), (1 0), (1 0), (0 1), ( 0), ( 0) and (0 ).
Multiplicity
• Multiplicity factor for {1 1 1} is 8 and the planes are (1 1 1), (1 1),
(1 1), (1 1), ( 1), ( 1), (1 ) and ( ).
Factor
{100} and {110} Planes
Planes

Planes
Planes
 Phase Diagrams
Ref. Materials Science and
Engineering
TOPIC 4 An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter
9)
Phase
 Homogenous physically distinct
portions of a system
 Phases can be -
 Pure metal
 Solid solution
 Intermediate phase or
intermetallic compound
 Different phase have different
structure or different composition
 Each phase is a separate entity
with a distinct microstructure
Phase
 Refers to –
 Distinct types of atomic bonding
 Distinct arrangement of elements
 For a given chemical composition
 The simplest examples are the
three states of matter (solid,
liquid, or gas) of a pure metal
 The three phases of a pure metal
have the same chemical
composition
 Obviously distinct physically due
to differences in the bonding and
arrangement of atoms
Phase Diagram
 Representing the limits of stability
of the various phases in a
chemical system
 Represents phases at equilibrium
 With respect to variables such as
–
 Composition
 Temperature
 Useful graphical representations
of the phase changes and
transformations in a material
 Phase diagram can be for unary,
binary or ternary system
Phase Diagram
Phase Diagram

 Slope of solid-liquid equilibrium

line is negative for water
 Because its solid state is less
dense than the liquid state
 Pressure change has opposite
effect
 Near its melting point, ice can be
changed into liquid water by the
application of pressure
 As pressure is released, the water
goes back to a more solid form of
ice
Binary Isomorphous System

 Similar crystal structure

 Favorable size factor

 Complete range of solubility in

both solid and liquid state
 Boundary between liquid &
two-phase field: Liquidus
 Boundary between solid & two-
phase field: Solidus
Completely Insoluble in Solid State
Partially Soluble in Solid State
Polymorphism
Isothermal Reactions

 Eutectic reaction

 Eutectoid reaction

 Peritectic reaction

 Peritectoid reaction
Eutectic Reactions
 In a eutectic reaction, a liquid of a certain
composition freezes isothermally on
cooling to form two solid solutions of
different compositions
 Alternately, in a eutectic reaction, two
solid solutions of different compositions
react isothermally on heating to form a
liquid of a different composition

Liquid, L1  Solid, S1 + Solid, S2

Eutectoid Reactions
 In a eutectoid reaction, a solid of a
certain composition freezes
isothermally on cooling to form two
solid solutions of different compositions
 Alternately, in a eutectoid reaction, two
solid solutions of different compositions
react isothermally on heating to form a
solid solution of a different composition

Solid, S1  Solid, S2 + Solid, S3

Peritectic Reactions
 In a peritectic reaction, a liquid and a
solid solution of different compositions
react isothermally on cooling to form a
solid solution of a different composition
 Alternately, in a peritectic reaction, a
solid solution of a certain composition
decomposes isothermally on heating
into a liquid and a solid solution of
different compositions

Liquid, L1 + Solid, S1  Solid, S2

Peritectic Reactions
 In a peritectoid reaction, two solid
solutions of different compositions
react isothermally on cooling to form a
solid solution of a different composition
 Alternately, in a peritectoid reaction, a
solid solution of a certain composition
decomposes isothermally on heating
into two solid solutions of different
compositions

Solid, S1 + Solid, S2  Solid, S3

Solidification of Isomorphous Alloys

 Upon cooling from

liquidus formation of
solid occurs
gradually
 Compositions of solid
and liquid change
gradually during
cooling
 At solidus line, nuclei
grow to consume all
the liquid
Solidification: More Examples
The Iron–Carbon System
The Iron–Carbon System
The Iron–Carbon System
The Iron–Carbon System
Allotropy of Pure Iron
 α iron or ferrite is RT phase

 At 910 C, α iron transform to γ iron or austenite

 At 1401 C, γ iron transforms to δ iron

 All allotropic changes exothermic when iron is cooled and

endothermic when iron is heated
 Increase in pressure lowers α-Fe to γ-Fe transition
temperature and increases γ-Fe to δ-Fe transition temperature
α Iron
 Crystal structure of α iron is BCC
 Softest structure on this phase diagram
 Shows magnetic properties
 At 0 C can dissolve 0.008 wt. % C interstitially
 Maximum solubility for C is 0.025 wt. % at 723 C
 Solid solution of C in this iron is called α iron solid
solution or ferrite solid solution
 Average TS 40000 psi
γ Iron
 Crystal structure of γ iron is FCC
 Most important structure for the heat treatment of steel
 Non-magnetic phase
 Can dissolve 0.8 wt. % C interstitially at 723 C and
maximum 2 wt. % at 1130 C
 Solid solution of C in this iron is called γ iron solid
solution or austenite solid solution
 Usually not stable at RT but can be stable under certain
conditions
 Average TS 150000 psi
δ Iron
 Crystal structure of δ iron is BCC
 High temperature ferrite
 Shows paramagnetic properties
 Maximum solubility for C is 0.1 wt. % at 1492 C
Cementite
 Chemical formula is Fe3C

 Interstitial intermetallic compound containing

6.67 wt. % C
 Have orthorhombic structure
 Hardest and the most brittle structure on the
diagram
 Average TS 5000 psi
Pearlite
 The eutectoid mixture of fine plate-like lamellar
mixture of ferrite and cementite
 Formed from austenite that contains 0.80 wt.%
carbon during slow cooling at 723 C
 Average TS 120000 psi
Ledeburite
 The eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite
 Formed from liquid that contains 4.30 wt.% carbon during
slow cooling at 1130 C.
 Not stable below 723 C, where austenite of ladeburite
transformed into pearlite.
 The structure is then called “transformed ladeburite.”
Microstructure of Steel
 Polymers
Ref. Materials Science and
Engineering
TOPIC 5 An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter
14)
Hydrocarbon Molecules
 Many organic materials are hydrocarbons.
 Molecules that have double and triple covalent bonds are termed unsaturated.
 For a saturated hydrocarbon, all bonds are single ones.
 Hydrocarbon compounds with the same composition may have different atomic
 arrangements, a phenomenon termed isomerism.
Hydrocarbon Molecules
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules

 The term monomer refers to the small molecule from which a polymer is
synthesized.
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules

 Polymer structures having other chemistries are possible.

 Tetrafluoroethylene monomer polymerizes to form polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
 Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) is another common polymer.
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Molecular Weight
Molecular Weight
Molecular Structure
Thermoplastic and
Thermosetting
Polymers
 Thermoplastics soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden when
cooled—processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated.
 Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures with flexible
chains are thermoplastic.
 Examples of common thermoplastic polymers include polyethylene, polystyrene,
poly(ethylene terephthalate), and poly(vinyl chloride).
Thermoplastic and
Thermosetting
Polymers
 Thermosetting polymers are network polymers.

 They become permanently hard during their formation and do not soften upon
heating.
 Network polymers have covalent crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains.

 Thermoset polymers are generally harder and stronger than thermoplastics and have
better dimensional stability.
 Most of the crosslinked and network polymers, which include vulcanized rubbers,
epoxies, and phenolics and some polyester resins, are thermosetting.
Copolymers
 Characteristics,
Applications,
and Processing of
Polymers
TOPIC 6 Ref. Materials Science and
Engineering
An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter
15)
Stress–Strain Behavior
Influence of Temperature
Macroscopic Deformation
Influence of Degree of
Crystallinity and Molecular
Weight
Melting And Glass
Transition
Temperatures
Plastics
 Filler materials are most often added to polymers to improve tensile and
compressive strengths, abrasion resistance, toughness, dimensional and thermal
stability, and other properties.
 The flexibility, ductility, and toughness of polymers may be improved with the aid of
additives called plasticizers.
 Additives that counteract deteriorative processes are called stabilizers.
 Colorants impart a specific color to a polymer; they may be added in the form of
dyes or pigments.
 Structures and
Properties of
Ceramics
Ref. Materials Science and
TOPIC 7 Engineering
An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter
12)
Ceramics
 Because ceramics are composed of at least two elements, and often more, their
crystal structures are generally more complex than those for metals.
 The atomic bonding in these materials ranges from purely ionic to totally covalent;
many ceramics exhibit a combination of these two bonding types, the degree of ionic
character being dependent on the electronegativities of the atoms.
Crystal Structures
EFFECT OF RADIUS RATIO: STABILITY
EFFECT OF RADIUS RATIO ON CN
NUMBER

There are unfortunately several challenges with using this idea to predict crystal structures:

•Atoms in crystals are not really ions - there is a varying degree of covalency depending
electronegativity differences.
•Bond distances (and therefore ionic radii) depend on bond strength and coordination number.
•Ionic radii depend on oxidation state (higher charge => smaller cation size, larger anion size).
RADIUS RATIO: <0.155

Radius ratio: 0.10

Radius ratio: 0.155

RADIUS RATIO: 0.155

Radius ratio: 0.10

Radius ratio: 1.0 Radius ratio: 0.155

RADIUS RATIO: 0.155

Radius ratio: 0.155

RADIUS RATIO: 0.225

Radius ratio: 0.155

Radius ratio: 1.0 Radius ratio: 0.225

RADIUS RATIO: 0.225

Radius ratio: 0.225

RADIUS RATIO: 0.414

Radius ratio: 0.225

Radius ratio: 1.0 Radius ratio: 0.414

RADIUS RATIO: 0.414
Sin 45o = (r+ + r-)/2r-
or 2 Sin 45o r- = (r+ + r-)
or r+ = (2 Sin 45o - 1) r-
or r+ /r- = 0.414

Radius ratio: 0.414

RADIUS RATIO: 0.732

Radius ratio: 0.414

Radius ratio: 1.0 Radius ratio: 0.732

RADIUS RATIO: 0.732

Radius ratio: 0.732

Crystal Structures
Ceramic Phase Diagrams
Brittle Fracture of
Ceramics
 Applications and
Processing of
Ceramics
TOPIC 7
Ref. Materials Science and
Engineering
An Introduction, Eighth Edition,
William D. Callister, Jr. and
David G. Rethwisch (Chapter
13)
Ceramics
Glass-ceramics
Refractories
Advanced Ceramics
 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)
 Optical Fibers
 Ceramic Ball Bearings
 Magnetic materials
 Superconductors