General Biology I
Chapter 7
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis:
• The conversion of light energy to
chemical energy.
• Heterotrophs: Organisms which can
not manufacture their own food from
simple Carbon compounds.
• Autotrophs: Organisms which can
manufacture their own food from
simple Carbon compounds.
Photosynthesis: The Parts/Structures
• Plant parts
• Basic reactants & products
• Light
• Pigments
• Photosystems
*What the parts do later (i.e. functions)
Where Does it Happen?
Identifying Photosynthetic
Reactants and Products
• Reactants: Carbon Dioxide, Water,
Light (Energy).
• Products: Food (Carbohydrates),
Oxygen.
• H2O + CO2 → C6H12O6 + O2
Water and Carbon Dioxide
• Water: Enters the plant
through the roots,
traveling up the stem and
to the leaves, through the
Xylem in the Vascular
Bundles.
Carbon Dioxide:
• Enters the plant from the
atmosphere (0.3%)
through microscopic pores
(Stomata) on the underside
of leaves.
• How does Water enter
roots and Carbon Dioxide
enter leaf cells? Diffusion.
Properties of Light and Pigments
• Light comes in particles called photons.
• Light also travels in waves.
Wavelength:
• The distance from one wave peak to
the next.
Light:
• Electromagnetic Radiation: All forms of
Radiant Energy, including the visible
light spectrum.
Light:
• Inverse relationship between Wavelength
and Energy: longer wavelengths have less
energy.
Light:
• The Visible Spectrum: Wavelengths of 400-700
nm (nm = 10-9 m or one-billionth of a meter)
Composition of
White Light? All
Wavelengths
(colors) of light
Pigments:
• Molecules capable of absorbing
some wavelengths (colors) of light
but not others.
How do pigments produce color?
• Only the wavelengths not absorbed
by a pigment are reflected or
transmitted so they can be seen.
Why is blue Blue?
• Pigment absorbs green, yellow,
orange and red, so only blue is
reflected (seen).
Why is red Red?
Blues and Greens are absorbed, Orange and
Red are not, they are transmitted (seen).
Why are leaves Green?
• Blue, orange and red wavelengths
are absorbed, so only green is
reflected (seen).
Absorption Spectrum:
A graph for a pigment, plotting the
amount of light absorbed vs. wavelength
Action Spectrum:
• A graph for entire
plant, plotting the
photosynthetic
activity (action)
vs. wavelength
Plant Pigments:
• How does one determine which of the
many pigments in a plant are the major
one(s) used for Photosynthesis? Compare
the Absorption Spectrum of each pigment
with the Action Spectrum.
What does a plant do with the light
absorbed? Photosynthesis
Structure of Chlorophyll:
• Hydrophobic, Hydrocarbon
"tail" inserts Chlorophyll into
the Thylakoid membrane.
• The "head" has alternating
double and single bonds -
useful for picking up and
giving off extra electrons.
Photosystems I and II:
• Groups/clusters of many (250-400)
Chlorophyll a and b molecules; and Carotene
and Xanthophyll as accessory pigments.
Where are we?
Photosystems
• Photosystems are arranged in such a way
that light energy is passed from pigment to
pigment in the antenna complex.
• A special pair of Chlorophyll a molecules
occur in each Photosystem and ultimately
receive the energy/electrons from all the
other pigments.
Photosystems
• In Photosystem I chlorophyll a is P700.
• In Photosystem II chlorophyll a is P680.
• They have special associations with the
Photosystem’s proteins.
Photosystems
• They pass the high energy electrons
generated by the Photosystem absorbing
light, to molecules outside the Photosystem
(electron transport chain).
Photosynthetic Reactions: FUNCTIONS
What the Parts Do
• Reactions of photosynthesis divided into two
major processes
• Energy-transduction reactions = Light reactions
OR light-dependent reactions; energy transfer
• Carbon-fixation reactions = Dark reactions OR
light-independent reactions; CO2 “fixed” to OR
enzymatically combined with OR covalently
bonded to RuBP
Photosynthetic Reactions: FUNCTIONS
ADP → ATP
Light Energy
(thylakoid membrane) NADP+ → NADPH
Provide “Power” for
Carbon-Fixation
Rxns
• H2O split → 2e- + 2H+ + 1/2 O2 (thylakoid space)
Light-Dependent Reactions:
• Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
(energy/electron transfer NADPH)
• Photolysis (splitting water)
• Chemiosmosis (making ATP)
• Cyclic Photophosphorylation
(energy/electron transfer)
Light-Dependent Reactions:
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Overall Reaction:
Water + Light → NADPH +
Oxygen + ATP
Where are we?
Step 1. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Light hits Photosystem I, transferring the
energy in the photon to an electron in one
of the Pigment molecules.
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Electrons Energized: energy passed to
P700 (Reaction Center) which passes
its electrons to Feridoxin then NADP+
Reductase then NADP+ reducing it to
NADPH.
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Problem: Photosystem I will eventually
run out of electrons and shut down
Step 2. Where are we?
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Light hits Photosystem II transferring the
energy in the photon to an electron in a
pigment.
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Electrons Energized: energy passed to P680
(Reaction Center) which passes its electrons
to the Redox Chain (Photosynthetic Electron
Transport Chain) and then to Photosystem I
The light absorbed by Photosystem II is also used to
split Water, generating Oxygen gas (diffuses out
through Stomata); electrons are passed to
Photosystem II then the ET chain; Hydrogen ions
added to those pumped into the Thylakoid lumen.
Photolysis
(ultimate
source of
electrons)
Where are we?
Chemiosmosis (Making ATP):
• Electrons passing through Redox Chain used to
pump Hydrogen ions from Stroma into Thylakoid
lumen.
Chemiosmosis (Making ATP):
Hydrogen ions diffuse down concentration
gradient and pass through ATP Synthase,
making ATP.
ATP Synthase
H+ ions diffuse back into
the Stroma through ATP
Synthase making ATP.
ATP Synthase is a
multimeric protein.
It rotates as H+ ions pass,
coupling H+ flow with
ADP Phosphorlyation.
Chemiosmosis (Making ATP):
ATP Synthase:
• It consists of a base
embedded in the
Thylakoid
Membrane, a
rotating shaft, and a
stationary head.
Chemiosmosis (Making ATP):
ATP Synthase:
• The shaft rotates as H+ ions
pass between the a and c
subunits in the base.
• The 120 ̊ rotation causes
conformational changes in
the head.
• In one conformation, the β
subunit binds ADP and
Phosphate.
Chemiosmosis (Making ATP):
ATP Synthase:
• In the second, ADP
and Phosphate are
forced together,
making ATP.
• In the third, ATP is
released.
• Hydrogen Ion flow is
coupled to ATP
Synthesis.
Chemiosmosis (Making ATP):
Major Products of Light-Dependent
Reactions: ATP*, NADPH and Oxygen.
*but not quite enough
Still Light-Dependent Reactions:
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Photons energize electrons in P700 (PSI).
Difference: Electrons not passed to NADP+, but
to the Redox (PET) Chain (backwards) to make
extra ATP only; no NADPH or Oxygen.
Where are we?
Calvin-Benson Cycle or the
Light-Independent Reactions
Other names for this cycle:
• 1. Calvin-Benson Cycle after the co-
discovers of the cycle.
• 2. C3 Photosynthesis after the first
detectable compound (3PG), a 3-Carbon
compound.
Step 1.
• CO2 added to RuBP
(Ribulose
Bisphosphate) to
yield 2 molecules
of 3PG (3-
Phosphoglycerate). Stroma
Where are we?
• Enzyme: Ribulose
Bisphosphate
Carboxylase-
Oxygenase.
Step 2.
• Phosphorylation
and Reduction
of 3PG to G3P
(Glyceraldehyde
3-Phosphate)
using ATP and
NADPH (from
non-cyclic
photophos-
phorylation).
Step 3.
• Regeneration of
RuBP (via
Pentose
Phosphate
Pathway) from From cyclic
G3P, to continue photophosphorylation
the cycle.
Net Yield:
• For every 6
Carbon Dioxide
entering the
cycle, 6 net
Carbons of
Carbohydrate
or one Glucose
are produced.
Synthesis of other molecules:
• Other organic molecules are
synthesized from the carbohydrates
produced in photosynthesis.
Cellular Respiration
Photorespiration
• The Reaction:
Ribulose
Bisphosphate
Carboxylase-
Oxygenase, in
the absence of
Carbon Dioxide
adds Oxygen to 3PG 3PG
RuBP (instead of
CO2).
3PG
Photorespiration
• The Product: One molecule of 3PG and
one molecule of Glycolate which is
respired (broken down using Oxygen)
but producing no ATP (expensive!)
• Thereby reducing the overall pool of
cellular carbohydrates when the plant
should be storing sugars.
• Essentially undoing the Calvin-Benson
Cycle!
Conditions for Photorespiration:
• Hot, dry or still conditions.
• Plants have to close stomata to prevent
water loss
• But leads to low CO2 conditions as well
• C4 Photosynthesis is a Solution to
Photorespiration.
• C4 pathway is special type of light-
independent reaction (L.D. still occurs)
C4-Basic Reactions:
• Carbon dioxide is
added to PEP by PEP
Carboxylase making
Oxaloacetate/Malate
(4-Carbon compounds)
• Oxaloacetate/Malate
break down to
Pyruvate and Carbon
Dioxide which is then
used in C3 Photosynth.
(Calvin Cycle)
Pyruvate is phosphorylated (with ATP)
to PEP to continue the cycle
Cellular locations:
Carbon dioxide
"capture" occurs in
Mesophyll cells.
Oxaloacetate/Malate is
transferred to Bundle
Sheath Cells where it
generates Carbon
Dioxide for C3
Photosynthesis.
Net Effect:
• Carbon Dioxide is
pumped into Bundle
Sheath Cells.
• Thereby increasing
local concentration
• And occurring in
low O2 location
(Light-Dependent
occurs in mesophyll)
Leaf Anatomy:
• C3 Plants:
• Mesophyll Cells: Have C3 pathway (regular light
independent reaction) & light-dependent reactions
• Bundle Sheath Cells: No photosynthesis, not
surrounded completely by Mesophyll Cells
(i.e. no special relationship)
C4 Plants:
• Mesophyll Cells: Have C4/CO2 pump & light
dependent reactions, but no C3 pathway
• Bundle Sheath Cells: Have C3 pathway and are
completely surrounded by Mesophyll Cells
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism CAM:
Another Special Type of Light Independent
• Distribution: CAM is
found in desert plants
(even hotter & drier!)
• Modification of C4:
• Night: CO2 fixed and
stored as Oxaloaceate/
Malate (Malic Acid) until
next day in vacuole
*Day & night in mesophyll
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)
• Day: CO2 released for C3 Photosynthesis
(Calvin-Benson) in same cell
• Advantage: At night
stomata can be open to
capture Carbon dioxide
without losing much
water vapor. During day
stomata are closed to
prevent desiccation.
*Day & night in mesophyll
Plants Perform Cellular Respiration
• Why do plants produce and store
Carbohydrates? To be able to break them
down for ATP energy when needed
(including at night and in the winter)