Highway Drainage

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 1

Longitudinal channel

2
Transverse slope

3
 Hill Road side drain

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 4

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 5
 Highway Drainage
Highway Drainage may be defined as the
process of interception and removal of water
from over,under and vicinity of the road
surface.
-Surface drainage: Removal and diversion of
surface water from the roadway and adjoining
land.
-Sub surface drainage: Removal and diversion of
excess soil water from the subgrade.
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 6
 Importance of highway drainage
1. Excess moisture content reduces stability of subgrade.
2. Excess moisture content reduces strength of pavement
3. Variation of moisture content may cause in the change in
volume of sub grade soil.
4. Bituminous pavement becomes failure due to continuous
contact with water.
5. Excess water damages shoulder & pavement edge.
6. In cold climate (below freezing temperature) pavement is
damaged by frost action of ground water. (frost heave)

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 7

 Requirements of good highway drainage
system
1. Surface water from carriageway should be drained off effectively
without percolating to the subgrade.
2. Surface water from adjoining area should not be allowed to enter the
roadway.
3. Side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope for
all surface water collected.
4. Flow of surface water from carriageway and shoulder should not
cause erosion.
5. Seepage & other sources of groundwater should be drained off by
sub-surface drainage.
6. Highest level of groundwater table should be kept below the
subgrade at least 1.2m
7. Special precautions should be taken in water logged areas.
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 8
Causes of moisture variation in subgrade soil
1. Seepage from the higher adjoining ground.
2. Percolation of moisture from pavement.
3. Percolation of water from shoulder & edge of
the pavement.
4. Rise and fall of ground water.
5. Capillary rise of moisture by the soil below
the subgrade level.
6. Transfer of moisture vapour due to difference
in temperature soil layers.
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 9
 Water balance
W = (A+B+C)-(D+E+F)
Where, W = water content in subgrade soil at any time of the year.
A = water infiltrated into subgrade soil during rainfall
B = water seeping towards subgrade from adjoining higher ground.
C = water coming to subgrade due to
– Capillary rise
– Upward movement of water table
– Transfer of vapour from lower soil layers.
D = Loss of water from subgrade due to flow away towards lower
adjacent ground.
E = Loss of water due to evaporation, transpiration
F = Loss of water due to percolation down ward.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 10

Sources of Moisture Variation in Subgrade

Rainfall

A Rainfall
Rainfall

B E Evaporation

C C
F Vapour C
Percolating Capillary Upward movement of
downward
movement D
Rise GWT Away towards lower adj.
Normal ground water table ground
Fig. Sources of moisture variation in sub-grade

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 11

• Components of Highway drainage System:
– Surface Drainage system
– Sub-surface Drainage system

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 12

 Surface Drainage

• Highway drainage system consists of:

• Removal of water laterally during rainfall
towards road side by providing camber, cross
falls on shoulder
• Trapped runoff is allowed to flow along
roadway by providing side drain.
• Cross drainage are provided for the final
removal of water from side drains by means of
culverts, bridges, causeways etc.
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 13
 Steps of Highway Drainage Design

Design of Highway
Drainage

Hydrological Study Hydraulic Design Structural Design

Fig. Steps in Highway Drainage Design

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 14

 Hydrological Analysis

• Objective of hydrological analysis:

• Determination of average rainfall intensity of
the locality
• Determination of the maximum quantity of
water expected to reach the element of the
drainage system under consideration. (Run off
estimation)

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 15

Factors affecting run-off:
• rate of rainfall,
• type of soil and moisture condition,
• topography of the area,
• types of ground cover etc.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 16

 Calculation of design discharge:
• Rational Formula: for the estimation of the peak run-
off for highway drainage

Q = C x I x Ad

Q - Run-off, m3/sec
C - Run - off coefficient (ratio of runoff to the rate of rainfall)
I – Intensity of rainfall, mm/sec
Ad – Drainage area, 1000 m2

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 17

 Determination of “C”
• C depends upon the types of surface & its
slope, if area (A) consists of different types of
surface with different run-off coefficient:
A1C1  A2C2  A3C3  ......
C
A1  A2  A3  ......

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 18

 Hydraulic Design
• It includes determination of cross section of side
drain and openings of cross-drainage. Cross
sectional area of the side drain may be
determined with the help of this formula.
Q = AV
• Where,
V = allowable velocity in m/sec
Q=Quantity of surface water m3/sec
04/23/2025
A= Area of cross section of the channel, m2
Highway Drainage 19
• Assuming uniform & steady flow through channel of
uniform cross section & slope, Manning’s formula is
used for determining the velocity of flow.
2 1
1 3 2
V R S
n
V – Average velocity, m/sec
n – Manning’s roughness coefficient
S – Longitudinal slope of the channel
R – Hydraulic radius, m (cross sectional area of flow
divided by wetted perimeter)
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 20
 Typical side Drains

> 0.3 m
0.6 m
A) Trapezoidal

> 0.3 m
B) Triangular
0.4 - 0.5 m
0.4 - 0.6 m

C) Rectangular

Fig. Typical Side drains

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 21

 Cross Drainage Structures
• Importance:
• The function of the cross drainage structures is to
ensure that the run-off water is discharged across
the road from one side to the other, as quickly as
possible, without causing undue pounding,
overtopping of the road embankment or erosion
of the portion of the road.
• Quick drainage, prevents water from penetrating
the soil in the embankment. A dry subgrade has
greater bearing strength than wet subgrade.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 22

 Types of cross drainage structures
– Culverts: upto 6 m length
– Minor bridge: more than 6 m and upto 20 m
length
– Medium bridge: Above 20 m length, span length
less than 20 m.
– Major bridge: bridge with span length greater
than 20 m.
– Causeway: which allow the water to flow over the
road way.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 23

• Types of Culvert:
– Pipe culvert
– Slab Culvert
– Box Culvert
– Arch Culvert

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 24

 Pipe culvert

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 25

 Slab culvert

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 26

 Box culvert

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 27

 Arch culvert

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 28

Suitability of types of culverts:
• Slab Culvert: Perennial or non perennial stream
with boulder movement & debris flow.
• Pipe Culvert: In non perennial or at very small
stream, frequently provided to carry surface run-off
from side drain.
• Arch Culvert: In high hills, deep cuts.
• Box culvert: to serve large flow, where the boulder
movement occurs, they are RCC thus resists high
impact loads.
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 29
 Pipe culvert

Mainly it consists of three parts:

• Culvert barrel
• Inlet structure
• Outlet structure

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 30

 Elements of culvert

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 31

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 32
• Depending upon the type of soil foundation
there may be either sand bedding or PCC or
RCC.
• Inlet or outlet structure consists of apron.
• Additional elements like hand rail, parapet
wall may be provided.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 33

 Types of flow through Pipe
1. Culvert with Free flow :
• Culverts functioning with free flow surface at
both entrance & through the entire length of
culvert barrel are referred as ‘culverts with
free flow’. These are non pressure flow.
• If H  1.2hb the culvert will have free flow
surface

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 34

H- depth of head water; hn - Normal depth of flow at inlet; hb - Height of culvert barrel;
hc - Critical depth of flow; ht - Depth of tail water
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 35
• Culverts with part full flow:
• The culvert with normal inlet, when the head
water depth rises above 1.2 hb, the flow is
considered as the flow with part full flow.
• [1.4hb  H  1.2 hb]

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 36

 B) Culvert with part full flow condition

H- depth of head water; hn - Normal depth of flow at inlet; hb - Height of culvert barrel;
hc - Critical depth of flow; ht - Depth of tail water

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 37

• Culvert with full flow:
• This condition is obtained when the inlet with
flared conical section & inlet and outlet of the
culverts are submerged.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 38

H- depth of head water; hn - Normal depth of flow at inlet; hb - Height of culvert barrel;
hc - Critical depth of flow; ht - Depth of tail water

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 39

 Erosion Control & Energy Dissipating
Measures
• 1. Drain lining
– For the particular type of soil; mean velocity may
exceed than permissible & it should be protected
against scouring.
– Slope of the drain is lined with turf and bottom is
covered by cobbles & gravels of desired sizes.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 40

• 2. Ditch Checks (Drops):
• Continuous lining with stone masonry in
cement mortar is expensive and whenever
possible bed slopes are made gentle by
providing falls at certain interval, such type of
structure is known as ditch checks.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 41

 Should be protected from
i2 Scouring

h
l
0.8 m
1.5m

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 42

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 43
• 4. Fall or Drop Structure:
• They are provided both upstream &
downstream of cross drainage.
• Different types of drop structures:
• a) Drop without stilling basin and friction wall
• b)Drop with stilling basin
• c) Drop with frictional wall
• d) Drop with frictional wall and stilling basin
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 44
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 45
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 46
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 47
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 48
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 49
 MISCELLANEOUS EROSION CONTROL
MEASURES
• Main reasons for soil erosion:
– Formation of new fills & cut slopes
– Excavation of drainage way
– Diversion of waterways along new channels
– Embankment construction
– Removal of top soil
– Increase in human activities on construction site
– Deforestation

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 50

 MISCELLANEOUS EROSION CONTROL MEASURES

• a) Vegetation:
– For slopes 1:1.5 and flatter, turf & other ground
cover could be rapidly established.
– Ground covered with low growing herbaceous or
woody plants are arranged.
– Trees & shrubs on steep hill slopes.
– Trees, shrubs and grass on road surrounding
usually satisfy multiple function.
– Vegetation plays aesthetical role also.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 51

 MISCELLANEOUS EROSION CONTROL MEASURES………….

• b) Slope pitching, lining & Protection walls:

– Dry stone pitching
– Armour rock protection
– Gabion crates filled pitching
– Stone masonry in C.M.
– Concrete block lining
– Retaining wall

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 52

 Dry stone pitching

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 53

 Armour rock protection

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 54

 Gabion creates filled pitching

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 55

 Stone masonry in C.M.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 56

 Retaining wall
Retaining wall

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 57

 Concrete block

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 58

 Concrete block lining

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 59

• c) Bank protection spur & check dams:
– Spur: perpendicular structure to the direction of
flow to dissipate the water energy & protect the
erosion.
– Check Dams: structures constructed across the
stream having high bed slope in a particular
section to retain boulder or bed material.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 60

04/23/2025 5.1 BRIDGE ENGINEERING 61
 Check Dam

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 62

 Other Miscellaneous Cross drainage
structures

1. Causeways:
• A cross drainage structure with or without openings below road surface
provided across a shallow drainage course at or about the bed level which
allows floods/ runoff to pass over it is referred as Causeway.
– A causeway with vents below to pass regular flow under the road
and flash flood across the road surface is often known as high level
causeway or submersible bridge.

– A causeway constructed at bed level which allows flood to pass

over the road surface at any time is referred as flush causeway. It is
sometimes called as Ford.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 63

 Causeway

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 64

 Causeway

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 65

 Vented Causeway

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 66

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 67
 Sub-surface Drainage
• Surface drainage system is the preventive
measure to control excessive moisture in sub-
grade soil and various pavement layers.
Unfortunately, whatever effective measures
for the surface drainage may be considered,
water finds its own way to get into the sub-
grade and further below. The provision of
drainage under the ground surface is referred
as sub-surface.

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 68

 Subsurface drainage system
• Drainage of infiltrated water
• Control of seepage flow
• Lowering water level
• Measures for capillary vapour transfer cut off

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 69

 Drainage of infiltrated water

Clay Seal

Sand Blanket 15-25 cm

Filter material
Perforated pipe 15-20 cm
Lean Concrete or sand bedding

1. Drainage of infiltrated water

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 70

 Control of seepage flow

Road Side drain

Impermeable strata

2. Interception of seepage flow by surface drainage

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 71

 Control of seepage flow

Seepa
ge flow

Imperv
ious St
rata

B) impervious strata deep below

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 72

 Lowering water level

Origina

1.25 m
l seepa
ge line

p age line
Lowered See
Imperv
ious St
r ata

Interception of Seepage by French Drain

04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 73

• Some suitable Measures:
• Sand blanket for capillary cut off.
• Tarfelt for both capillary cut off & vapor
movement.
• Polythene envelops for capillary cut off and
vapours movement.
• Use of impermeable membrane (bitumen)
• Bitumen stabilized soil for impermeable
membrane.
04/23/2025 Highway Drainage 74