Chapter 6.

Groundwater Resources Evaluations

 Vulnerabilities of groundwater to changes (recharge, pollutant load)

How does Aquifer Pollution occur?

• Waste disposal and contaminant load is uncontrolled
• Soil in the vadose actively attenuates many pollutants esp. domestic
wastewater, and increases the time available for contaminant elimination
processes
• Groundwater pollution threat is primarily to shallow aquifers
• Deep and confined aquifers can become polluted in highly fractured media
and when pollution persists over a long time.
Vulnerabilities of groundwater to changes (recharge, pollutant load)

Assessment of Pollution
• Groundwater pollution hazard assessment is needed to appreciate the
actions required to protect groundwater quality; it should be an essential
component of environmental best‑practice
• Groundwater pollution hazard is the interaction between the aquifer pollution
vulnerability and the contaminant load

• Aquifer pollution vulnerability can be assessed from the hydrogeological

characteristics of the overlying material which can be mapped
• Potential contaminant load can also be mapped and overlaid on the aquifer
vulnerability map => groundwater pollution hazard.
 Vulnerability of aquifer to pollution

 Thin vadose zone &

shallow water-table
provides less natural
attenuation,

prone to pollution.
Vulnerability of aquifer to pollution
 Deeper and
confined aquifers
have much greater
natural protection
by the overlying
ground.
Vulnerabilities of groundwater to changes (recharge, pollutant load)

How do aquifers become polluted?

 When contaminant load is inadequately
controlled/disposed of.
groundwater merits protection because
 it provides vital source of potable water
supply
 Vulnerabilities of groundwater to changes
(recharge, pollutant load)
The Urban Environment
Land-use activities commonly responsible for
groundwater pollution in the Urban areas.
 Common groundwater contaminants and
associated pollution sources
Pollution
Type of contaminant
source
Agricultural Activity nitrates; ammonium; pesticides; faecal organisms

In-situ Sanitation nitrates; faecal organisms; trace synthetic hydrocarbons

Gasoline Filling
benzene; other aromatic hydrocarbons; phenols
Stations & Garages

ammonium; salinity; some halogenated hydro-carbons;

Solid Waste Disposal
heavy metals
Dry Cleaning trichloroethylene; tetrachloroethylene
Sewage Sludge
nitrates; various halogenated hydrocarbons; lead; zinc
Disposal

Leather Tanneries chromium; various halogenated hydrocarbons; phenols

Application of DRASTIC model for
assessing vulnerability
The word DRASTIC is an acronym of seven hydrogeological parameters which helps in
defining groundwater regime and its vulnerability towards pollution.

The seven thematic parameters are

depth to aquifer (D),
recharge (R),
aquifer media (A),
soil type (S),
topography (T),
intermediate zone (I), and
Conductivity (C),
generated in the geographic information system (GIS) environment.
The higher the DRASTIC index number, the higher is the susceptibility for
groundwater pollution.
R rating assign to each class of thematic layer W weight assign to thematic layer

Depth to water level

Depth to water level is distance of water level from the ground surface. Depth of water level has
inverse relation with groundwater pollution.

If water level is very shallow then the chances of pollutant intermingling with groundwater will be
more

whereas if the water level is deeper then the travel time will increase and as a result the chances of
contamination will be reduced.
 Recharge
Recharge map of the area has been prepared by applying soil moisture technique where the surplus
water from the soil zone is calculated using daily rainfall data, evapotranspiration, and soil moisture
holding capacity of the soil.

Aquifer
The well yield is suggestive of permeability of the saturated zone; therefore, the higher the yield, the
higher is the permeability.
In the DRASTIC model analysis, the higher yield has been assigned more rating than the less.
Groundwater yield depends upon the size and interconnectivity of the secondary porosity, i.e., fractures.

Soil
Soil being top of unsaturated zone overlying the aquifer is one of the important factors for the
determination of groundwater pollution zone.

It is the nature of porosity and permeability of the soil media, responsible for the rate of infiltration in
to the aquifer.
 Topography
which is one of the factors controlling the infiltration of water into subsurface; hence, an indicator for
the suitability for groundwater pollution prospect.

In the gentle slope area the surface runoff is slow allowing more time for rainwater to percolate,
whereas high slope area facilitates high runoff allowing less residence time for rainwater and hence
comparatively low infiltration.

Impact of vadose zone

Vadose zone lies above the aquifer and below soil zone. It is through this zone infiltrated water
percolates to reach aquifer zone.

The thickness of the vadose zone influences the amount of percolation in to the aquifer system. vadose
zone thickness has been utilized from the well inventory data.

If the thickness is more, then the time taken for percolation in to the groundwater will be more. Hence,
shallow thickness is more susceptible for groundwater pollution
and vice versa.
 Hydraulic conductivity

It is the property of the aquifer to transmit water.

The high hydraulic conductivity zone is more potential for groundwater pollution.
Hydraulic conductivity value is directly proportional to transmissivity (T).

the DRASTIC vulnerability index determination in the area, it is concluded that about
60% of the area comes under no to low risk zone and remaining 40% of the area are
shared between high and moderate risk zone of pollution.

groundwater pollution map can be used in future for groundwater assessment and
before any industrial setup in the area; this map could be very much helpful for
keeping groundwater free from pollution.
DRASTIC model parameter rating for vulnerable study
 Groundwater resources potential of Ethiopia

Many parts of Ethiopia have limited supplies of groundwater because of the poor
permeability of the crystalline rocks and variable water-table depths.

Success with obtaining groundwater in these areas depends upon locating water-
bearing fractures.

The permeability of volcanic rocks within and flanking the Rift is generally more
variable, although is often good.

Increased water yields often occur along joints and fractures, in interbedded
sediment horizons and in areas with porous (vesicular) lava and ash flows.
 General
The geology of Ethiopia complied from
different works is (A. Vernier, 1993) as
follows.
Precambrian metamorphic rocks with associated
intrusive forming the "Old basement" =23% of
the total Ethiopian surface.
Paleozoic and Mesozoic, sediments=25%
Early tertiary volcanic =23%
Late tertiary volcanic =12%
Quaternary sediments and volcanic= 17%

April 23, 2025 25

Table Hydrogeological mapping coverage of Ethiopia (GSE, 2006).

Coverage
Scale Area (km2) (%)
1:2,000,000
1,112,000 100
1:1,000,000
409,000 37
1:500,000
53,376 5
1:250,000
320,340 29
Map showing the estimated distribution of groundwater availability in Ethiopia
The best aquifers with the largest exploitable resources of groundwater occur in the
young (Quaternary) lake and alluvial sediments.

Unconsolidated alluvial sediments occur in the main floodplains of the Rivers Wabi,
Shebali, Genale- Dawa, Omo, Baro, Angereb, Tekeze, Gash and Barka.

The water table in these unconsolidated sediments is also typically shallower than in
other rock formations (typically around 15 m below surface).

Communities use groundwater from a combination of springs, dug wells and tubewells.

In the highlands, springs predominate. In the hard-rock areas, groundwater

abstraction sources are mainly for domestic use as a result of small yields.

Groundwater use for irrigation is mainly limited to the more permeable areas of
alluvial sediment.
In areas using traditional dug wells where water is scarce, such as the low-lying plains
of eastern Ethiopia, clusters of wells are sometimes used to increase the access to
water.

Tubewell drilling programmes have been instigated over the last few decades, but
groundwater provision is often unsuccessful because of poor groundwater yields,
adverse drilling conditions or poor water quality.

UN (1989) estimated that more than 20% of tubewells drilled in Ethiopia had been
abandoned as a result of a combination of these reasons.

Tubewell depths vary considerably across the country. Many in the Rift and highlands
are in the range 50–100 m.

Depths in the sediments of eastern Ethiopia (Ogaden) are often in excess of 200 m
because of deep water tables.
 ENGDA (Ethiopian National Groundwater Database)
Groundwater database is playing an important role in understanding the hydrologic cycle and discharge
–recharge relation, for assessing and managing water resources with in the hydrogeologic environment.

ENGDA is implemented jointly by the Ministry of Water Resources, Addis Ababa University , and the
Geological Survey of Ethiopia in close collaboration with the Regional Water Resources Development
Bureaus, Water Work Enterprises and NGOs.

The success of our technical cooperation projects depends on our capability to collect, process, interpret
and archive the relevant hydrogeological and hydrological data.

ENGDA is a necessary tool that is critical to the successful implementation of the proposed Ethiopian
Groundwater Resources Assessment Program (EGRAP) that has been submitted to the Government for
approval.

This project is aimed at mapping and investigating the groundwater resources of the entire nation within
a period of 12-15 years.
 Precambrian rocks
 In general the Precambrian rocks are compact with no
primary porosity and permeability. They are assumed to
be aquicludes and groundwater barriers. But at places
they have localized aquifer characteristics.
1. The main water bearing formations of the Precambrian
rocks are found to be present within the structural
discontinuities developed as a result of jointing, shearing,
fracturing and weathering of various degrees.
 Significant aquifers however, develop within the
weathered overburden and fractured bedrock
 Four factors contribute to the weathering of basement
rocks
 Presence stress components of fractures;
 Geomorphology of the terrain;
 Temperature and occurrence of groundwater;
 Mineral content of the basement rock.

April 23, 2025 32

 Metamorphic rocks
Intersection of the main regional tectonic structures
Tectonic lineaments following the contact with the middle
and upper complex younger belts
Occurrence of post –crystalline tensile and shear
fractures in synclinal and anticlinal structures in
compressive stress along the deformation plane
Occurrence of quartz and pegmatite dikes
Occurrence
In the south (sidamo, Gemugofa,Keffa)
In the west ( Wollega, Gojam, Gonder)
North, Tigray
East, Harargie

April 23, 2025 33

 Depth of groundwater in the Precambrian crystalline rocks
vary from 5-60 m
Most of the hand dug wells constructed in the Precambrian
rocks show the groundwater depth to be in the range of 5-
10 meters
The yield of springs and wells drilled in these rocks is
generally less than 1 liter per second. Rarely the yield goes
as high as 2 l/s.
The water quality is generally good
The TDS in the Precambrian aquifers is less than 1500 mg/l
The best alternative means of groundwater development in
the Precambrian rocks are using hand dug wells with a
depth of less than 30 m and shallow wells.
The chance of finding water of high yield depends on the
chance of encountering fractures.

April 23, 2025 34

 Important consideration in metamorphic terrains
Sustainability of groundwater from basement aquifers,
particularly during extended drought periods;
The vulnerability of shallow aquifers to pollution,
particularly with the rapid increase of onsite sanitation
and intensification of agriculture in some areas;
The frequency of occurrence of groundwater in deep
fractures where the weathered zone is thin or absent.
Groundwater in basement aquifers is generally young and
has low solute concentrations. However, high sulphate can
occur due to the weathering of the basement rocks.
Since groundwater in crystalline basement tends to be
shallow, it is vulnerable to contamination.
Pit latrines and irrigation returns can increase the nitrate
concentrations in the groundwater.
Where pit latrines are close to shallow wells,
microbiological contamination can sometimes occur.

April 23, 2025 35

 Paleozoic sediments
The Ethiopian Paleozoic formations occurring only in north
Tigray are not very important from hydrogeological point of
view, mainly because of their limited areal extent.
 Edaga Arbi Tillites: these are very heterogeneous sediments with
chaotic granulometric distribution and with a strong silty –clay
cement to make them tight. Therefore, from their limited areal
extent and hydraulic properties, they are not considered as aquifers.
 Enticho sandstone: this is a coarse calc-arenaceous complex may
give rise to good aquifers within the more conglomeratic horizons or
when adequately thick and highly reworked by weathering and
fracturing
A transmissivity values of 114 meter square per day was
reported for this sandstone in Tigray (Tesfaye, 1982).
Remark: regionally the Precambrian and Paleozoic
formations are grouped under aquicludes.

April 23, 2025 36

Mesozoic sediments
 These aquifers are termed to be fissure and karstic aquifers.
Metamorphosed Precambrian carbonate rocks (marble) can be grouped
as fissure and karstic aquifer but, since its productivity is relatively poor
and is exposed in areas of low recharge, its water potential is not that
much appreciable. They are jointed and show solution holes and may be
good aquifers in lower topographic areas.
 The aquifers of Mesozoic formations are much more important
especially when they occur in the more favorable climatic conditions.
This is exactly true of the Mesozoic sequences that outcrop in the
central, northern Ethiopian plateau (the Blue Nile Basin and Tigray
basin), which have a stratigraphic series of remarkable thickness and
good continuity, even though at times hidden by the overlying volcanics
of later date.
 These formations are transgressive series which starts with an
arenaceous type formation
 (Adigrat sandstone), goes on to calcareous –dolomitic levels, very often
fossiliferous and poorly marly towards the top (Antalo limestone), to
reach the levels where the marl component tends to predominate over
calcareous (Agulae shale) and finally the upper horizon once more
arenaceous congulomeratic (Amba Aradom formation or sandstone)
April 23, 2025 37
 Hydrogeologically: the Mesozoic formations,
 Adigrat Sandstone (the lower sandstone)
 Interesting aquifers may be found in the Adigrat sandstone within the most
super finical horizons notably weathered and significantly reworked or within
more distinctly conglomeratic interrelations at different depths.
 Deep aquifers or peculiar highly productive springs may be found at the contact
between these sandstone and the impervious Paleozoic glacial deposits.
 Wells drilled in Adigrat sandstone reported to have moderate yields.
Transmissivity capacity goes down as low as 0.25 meter square /day and as high
as 125 meter square /day. One can say therefore, the aquifer in adigrat
sandstone is moderately productive.
 Antalo Limestone:
 Important aquifers occur also in the Antalo limestone area Abai beds both within
the karstic circuits deeply affecting the carbonate rocks and along the main
tectonic lineaments and also at the contact within the formation of the Adigrat
sandstone. This contact which is more clearly visible in the deepest gorges of
the Blue Nile valley, give rise to a series of highly productive springs, which
constitute the primary water sources of such area.
 A large number of springs with a discharge of 10l/s and greater emerging at the
contact of the limestone beds and with shale and marl were reported in
northern Ethiopia.

April 23, 2025 38

  Several wells were drilled in to the aquifers of the limestone. The yield
in the wells of limestone was less than 1 l/s, and trasmissivity values 2-
10.7 meter square /day.
 In the highlands of Harare, the limestone is highly foliated, jointed,
fractured and karastified. As a result springs with discharge rate of 5-10
l/s are known in the highlands. Rarely some of the springs can have
discharge rate up to 100l/s.
 However, the groundwater in the Ogaden region could be deep as 190
meters as it was depicted by the wells drilled at Filtu and Negele. The
groundwater quality in these rocks is good and can be used for all
purposes.
 The water carrying capacity Hamanlei formation is controlled by the
degree of fracturing, jointing and karastification.
 The permeability is reduced by the clay and shale intercalated in the
carbonate rock. But, the marl, clay and shale are good confining rocks.
 The groundwater quality in the Hamanelie formation has total dissolved
solids greater than 2500 mg/l and is poor. The high salinity formation is
due to
 The evaporate intercalation
 High evaporation rate
 Inadequate recharge

April 23, 2025 39

  When TDS content is less than 2500mg/l where it is recharged by flood
runoff, the water quality becomes good (Tesfaye 1993). Hand dug wells
along riverbeds and riverbanks of the the Hamanelie formation are
places where good water quality is to be obtained. The marl, shale and
clay units inter-bedded within the formation serve as confining or water
retaining units. The water may occur under confined or semi-confined
conditions.
 Underlying the carbonate, the Agulae shale (Urandab formation in
south Ethiopia), the aquifer in this formation are the limestone beds.
The shale acts as confining layers. The agulae shale is a complex
formation of multilayer aquifers in which the less compact carbonatic
intercalations are fractured, often highly laminated and karastified.
 These aquifers are confined by the more marly levels and often also by
quite compact magmatic horizons , made up of tertiary dolerite sills
(Mekelle Dolerite), which are present at different depths in this
formation. Possible abundant groundwater that may also be found in
these basaltic sills are mainly due to their severe local fracturing, which
can be attributed to the action of the principal tectonic alignments that
sometimes upset the whole stratigraphical series.

April 23, 2025 40

  Some of the wells turned to be flowing or artesian wells and in the
Mekelle area, most of them exist in confined and semi confined
conditions.
 More than ten wells yielded between 0.8-13 l/s
 In general the groundwater quality is poor. It has a TDS of 1000-4000
ppm and a high hardness (500-1500ppm,Tesfay 1992)
 The Urandab formation in southeast Ethiopia is overlain by Kebredare
limestone. The groundwater quality is generally poor due to the high
content of gypsum. Potable groundwater in some localities developed
from wadies in the Kabre Darre formation has TDS up to 3000 mg/l.
 Kabre Darre in southeast Ethiopia is overlain by Gorrahei and Ferfer
gypsum formations. They contain intercalated carbonates, sandstone,
argillaceous and marl units. These formations have very low
permeability and are in general as aquicludes.
 The Amba Aradom (Upper Josoma) sandstone overlies the Agulae shale
in northern Ethiopia and Hamanlei formation in the northeast Ogaden,
Jijiga, Kebri Beyah, and Eastern Degabur (Gebreyohannes 1992)

April 23, 2025 41

Upper sandstone and recent sediments
 In the eastern highlands of Harar and eastern Ogaden and escarpment areas of Harar, the
sandstone is highly faulted and fractured. It is highly friable and porous.
 The spring yield emerging from this formation in the eastern Ethiopia is recorded to be
between 5-50 l/s (Habteab and Jeri Sima 1996). Water supply wells of Dire Dawa town and
military center at Hurso, penetrating into aquifers of the upper sandstone have a yield,
drawdown, and transimissivity value of 1.17-16 l/s, 1-16.8m and 68.6-820 meter
square/day respectively.
 The quality of water in the upper sandstone is generally good
 A borehole located at Felfel (lower topography) stream, Dega Habour and Aware, reached
the static water level at 210 m depths. This well was reported to have a significant yield
(5l/s) and good quality water (up to 400 ppm TDS).
 Drilling in this formation in the eastern Ogaden has been difficult due to the sediment
caving, circulation loss and siltation after well construction.
 In Dalol area of the north Ethiopia, the geology of the upper section is composed of mainly
evaporites (gypsum and halite). They are highly fractured and have moderate to high
permeability. The groundwater in these rocks is known as brackish to brine.
 The source of relatively fresh water in the Dalol area is in the shallow alluvial deposits and
fluvial terraces. The groundwater in the alluvial and fluvial deposits can be taped by hand
dug wells and shallow boreholes (Tesfaye 1993)
 The youngest sediments of the Mesozoic age, inspite of their great areal extent, which are
calcareous-marl-arenaceous sediments occurring in the north east (Denakil horst) and in
the south east (Sidamo, Bale, Harrarge and Ogaden)of Ethiopia seem to be far less
significant hydrogeologically.

April 23, 2025 42

VOLCANIC ROCKS
 Most of the Ethiopian plateau is dependent on volcanic rocks for rural
groundwater supplies.
 The groundwater potential of volcanic rocks varies considerably, reflecting
the complexity of the geology. Most of the volcanic rocks in Ethiopia were
formed in three phases of activity during Cenozoic times, associated with the
opening of the East African rift valley. These events gave rise to a thick
complex sequence of lava flows, sheet basalts and pyroclastic rocks such as
agglomerate and ash.
 Thick basalt lava flows are often interbedded with ash layers and palaeosoils.
The potential for groundwater depends largely on the presence of fractures.
The top and bottom of lava flows, particularly where associated with
palaeosoils, are often highly fractured and weathered.
 The most important factors for the development of aquifers are
 thick paleosoils or loose pyroclastic material between lava flows
 joints and fractures due to the rapid cooling of the tops of lava flows provide
important flow pathways;
 contact between lava flows and sedimentary rocks or earlier volcanic material such
as domes etc. are often highly fractured and contain much groundwater;
 Gas bubbles within lava flows, and porosity within ashes and agglomerates can
provide significant groundwater storage.

April 23, 2025 43

 Fractured lava flows can have very high permeability, but
yields exhibit large variations. Boreholes are generally more
suitable than hand dug wells, since the fracture zones with
significant groundwater are often deep.
Springs are common in volcanic rocks, particularly in
highland areas. The interconnected fractures and cavities
found in the lava flows provide rapid discrete flow paths for
groundwater, which often discharge as springs at
impermeable boundaries. Analysis of 128 springs issuing
from fractured lava flows in the Ethiopian Highlands
indicated spring yields of 1 – 570 l/s (Aberra 1990).
The quality of groundwater can sometimes be a problem in
volcanic rocks. Fluoride concentrations are sometimes
elevated and concentrations in excess of 1.5 mg/l can lead
to health problems such as dental or skeletal fluorosis.
Commonly present together with tuffs, ignibrites,
agglomerates and interbedded basaltic flows and reworked
paleosoils

April 23, 2025 44

  Fissural basalt flows, silicic massifs and lavas, domes, young volcanic centers, ash
spatter cones, thick pyroclastic sediments , constitute the main petrographic
environments of the rift floor and Dankil lowlands (Afar group and others).
 The complex spatial and temporal distribution of these volcanic rocks, their different
reciprocal stratigraphic relationships, their changeable contacts with ancient and
recent rocks, their great compositional, structural and textural variability, their
different level of tectonization and weathering , the clear heterogeneity of their
hydraulic characteristics, are all factors which highly complicate the possibility of
standardizing hydrogeological research methodologies in these geological formations.
 Operational investigations carried out in apparently similar lithological areas could
give very different results depending on unforeseen local heterogeneity factors.
 Productive aquifers within the various volcanic units are evidenced by:
 Occurrence within the basaltic flows of thick horizons of paleosoils constituted by coarse
alluvial and eluvial sediments probably due to various stagnation phrases of the volcanic
activity, when erosion and transportation processes normally play an important role.
 Occurrence within the maffic and acidic lava flows of inter bedded loose pyroclastic materials
and reworked agglomerates or breccias, when the finest clayey elements has been totally
removed
 Occurrence of structural discontinuities due to the sharp contacts between lava flow and
massive volcanic apparatus, such as big volcanoes, domes, etc.
 Significant patterns of vertical and horizontal joints within rather thick lava flows
 Occurrence of thick residual soils as products of strong weathering of the more silicic
volcanics
 Occurrence of contact and overflow springs due to the sequence of pervious and impervious
layers
 Occurrence of fracture and fault springs along the main tectonic lineaments

April 23, 2025 45

  rhyolite flows and domes act as ground water barriers / more runoff/
 Since stratified basalt and ignimbrites are characterized by horizontal and
vertical jointing, high permeability when not sealed by weathered clay deposits
and other cementing materials.
 The different stratified basalt flows are separated by paleosoil and fine ash and
tuff intercalations which serve as confining units and hence the groundwater in
the volcanic rocks occur under both confined and unconfined conditions.
 Inventory of developed springs, hand dug wells and drilled wells in different
parts of the country shows that the groundwater yield ranges from less than 1-
10l/sec and to more than 50 l/s in areas affected by faulting.
 The scoraceous deposits and scoraceous basalt are highly permeable and are
the highest potential for groundwater of all the volcanic rocks.
 Wells drilled in scoraceous deposits at Akaki (south of Addis Ababa) have a yield
of 50 l/s, with no drawdown for a pumping of 72 hours.
 The water level is as shallow as 3m close to the rivers to more than 30m and
occasionally deeper than 100m.
 These rocks have a very wide range of transmissivity values ranging from less
than 10-30 m2/day to 100-400 m2/day in fault zones and highly permeable
formations.

April 23, 2025 46

 Main characteristics of unconsolidated
sediments and Groundwater movement
Unconsolidated sediments cover 17% of the landmass of
Ethiopia,
Unconsolidated sediments comprise a range of material
from coarse gravel to silt and clay.
Yields from thick deposits of sand and gravel can be high,
sufficient for domestic supply and agricultural irrigation.
Where aquifers and groundwater levels are shallow, wells
can be used and boreholes installed using hand drilling.
However , where the aquifers are deep boreholes must be
used and need to be carefully constructed and gravel
packed to avoid ingression of sand.
Geophysical methods can easily distinguish sand and
gravel layers and can be used to indicate the thickness of
unconsolidated sediments
Groundwater quality problems in unconsolidated
sediments is good

April 23, 2025 47

 In higher topographic areas the groundwater table is steep
where as the lowland and flat topped plateaus the water
table is either flat or gentle slope
 This kind of movement has an effect on groundwater occurrences
and water quality. The existence of an artesian springs and wells in
the highlands can be explained by the nature of the movement of the
groundwater.
 In addition the geological conditions, the amount of rainfall, speed of
movement of groundwater and evapotranspiration play role on the
quality of groundwater.
 In the highlands the groundwater quality is better than it is in the
lowlands if when the aquifer is the same
 Generally, depth to groundwater in the western lowlands range from
2-20m
 Gambella plain 4-60m
In the highlands, the static water level varies from 2-10m
in the valley (depressions) and from 10-100m in higher
topography
 Rift from 4-150m and >150m in places
 Ogaden depends on the nature of the sediment
 in alluvial 2-15m
 Jurassic sediments 20-250m

April 23, 2025 48

  The groundwater in the highlands and western lowlands with TDS less than 1000mg/l
and with low sodium adsorption ratio can be used for irrigation and drinking purposes.
 The groundwater in the rift valley is highly variable, fresh groundwater is limited to
escarpment and hill foot and flood plain areas. The rift floor is characterized by
thermal groundwater with high TDS and high content of fluoride.
 The groundwater around the saline lakes and dried up lakes in the Afar depression is
saline. The groundwater in the rest part of the rift valley is of good quality and can be
used for irrigation and drinking.
 The groundwater quality in the eastern and southern lowlands is generally saline i.e.
2000-5000ppm, even more. The relatively fresh water is (<3000ppm) is restricted to
the Wadies and flood plains, which are continuously recharged by flood runoff.
Groundwater Recharge
 Direct infiltration of rainfall is the main source of groundwater recharge in the
humid and semi-humid regions of Ethiopia.
 In the arid and semi-arid regions the situation is quite different. In the later
situation the direct infiltration from rainfall is insignificant because
evapotranspiration exceeds the rainfall amount. The groundwater recharge
source for the lowlands, arid and semi-arid is therefore; flood runoff and
subsurface horizontal recharge originating from high rainfall areas of the
highlands.

April 23, 2025 49

April 23, 2025 50
 Groundwater Discharge
Groundwater discharge occurs mostly by:
 Effluent seepage of
 Rivers
 Streams

 Withdrawal from
 Wells, boreholes, hand dug wells
 Evapotranspiration

 The total groundwater consumption by livestock and domestic use

is assumed to be 520,844,000m3/year
 The total groundwater consumed is insignificant as compared to

the total groundwater resource of Ethiopia which is about 60BM3.

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Groundwater flow modeling
 Bear et al. (1992) defined a model as a simplified version of a real-world
system that approximately simulates the relevant excitation-response
relation of the real-world system.
 The assumptions that constitute a conceptual model should relate to
such items as:
 geometry of the boundary of the investigated aquifer domain;
 kind of solid matrix comprising the aquifer: its homogeneity and isotropy;
 mode of flow in the aquifer: one-dimensionally, two-dimensional horizontal, or three-dimensional;
 flow regime: phreatic or confined;
 property of the water: its homogeneity, compressibility, effect of dissolved solids and/or
temperature on density and viscosity;
 sources and sinks of water and relevant contaminates, within the domain and on its boundaries
(with reference to their approximation as point sinks and sources, or distributed sources);
 initial conditions within the considered domain; and
 conditions on the boundaries of the considered domain that express the interactions with its
surrounding environment.

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 Selecting the appropriate conceptual model for a given
problem is one of the most important steps in the
modeling process.
Oversimplification may lead to a model that lacks the
required information, while under- simplification may
result in a costly model, or in the lack of data required for
model calibration and parameter estimation, or both.
A model cannot replicate the natural conditions with 100%
accuracy,
Hence, modeling should be considered as a continuous
activity in which new information are added and unreliable
one discarded, and assumptions are re-examined, added,
deleted and modified as the investigations continues.

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  The next step in a modeling process is to express the conceptual model
in the form of a mathematical model.
 The solution of the mathematical model yields the required prediction of
the real-world system's behavior in response to various sources and/or
sinks.
 The complete statement of a mathematical model consists of the
following items:
 definition of the geometry of the considered domain and its boundaries;
 equation (or equations) that expresses the balance of the considered extensive quantity
(or quantities);
 flux equations that relate the flux(es) of the considered extensive quantity(ies) to the
relevant state variables of the problem;
 constitutive equations that define the behavior of the fluids and solids involved;
 equation (or equations) that express initial conditions that describe the known state of
the considered system at some initial time; and
 equation (or equations) that define boundary conditions that describe the interaction of
the considered domain with its environment.
 The mathematical model contains the same information as the
conceptual one, but expressed as a set of equations.

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 Two commonly used
Finite difference
Finite element
Common software:
MODFLOW
 MODFLOW2000
 Visual MODFLOW
 PMWin

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 h   h    h 
S  T   T   q 1  q 2 W
t x  x  y  y 

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