Unit No# 4

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

By: Farzana Kausar
Lecturer
INS-KMU
 Objectives:

• At the completion of this unit, learners will be able to:

• Define skeletal system
• Discuss the structure, types and functions of bone
• List the functions of the skeletal system
• Identify the bones of axial & appendicular skeleton
• Describe the various markings on the surface of bones
• Describe the bones of:
• The skull
• Vertebral column
• The rib cage or chest
• Pectoral girdle and upper extremity
• Pelvic girdle and lower extremity
• Briefly discuss the difference between male & female pelvis.
Farzana Kausar

04/21/2025 2
Skeletal
system
• The framework of the body, consisting of bones
and other connective tissues, which protects and
supports the body tissues and internal organs.

• Skeleton can be defined as the hard framework of

human body around which the entire body is built.

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Component of
human skeleton
•Human skeleton is composed of the following
components
• Bones
• Cartilages
• Ligaments (bone to bone)
• Tendon (bone to muscle)
• Joints

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Functions of the
skeletal system
• The skeletal system provides structural support for
the body, maintaining its shape.
• Bones protect vital organs, such as the brain and
heart, from external injury.
• Bones, joints, muscles, and tendons collaborate to
facilitate body movement.
• Bone marrow produces blood cells, contributing to
the body's hematopoietic function.
• The skeletal system stores essential minerals,
including calcium and phosphorus, for physiological
processes.

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Bones:
• Adult human body is made up of 206 bones.
• Newborn have approx. 300 bones.
• Bones are strong, flexible, semi rigid and
constantly remodeled.
• Gives attachment to muscle and tendons.
• Longest bone of the body is femur.
• Stapes is the shortest bone of the body.

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tructure of Bone:
•Periosteum: Covers Bones (blood vessels, nerves, tendons
and ligaments attachment)
•Compact Bone: Lies beneath the periosteum
•Sharpey’s Fibers: Secure periosteum to underlying
bone
•Endosteum: Inner layer (Contain bone cells)
•Spongy Bone: (Cancellous Bone) Lies beneath the
compact bone
•Bone Marrow: Fills the gaps between the spongy
bone

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Diaphysis
• Shaft of the bone
• Most of the bones length
• Dense bone
• Covered by fibrous connective tissue (periosteum)
• Having medullary cavity which contain yellow bone marrow
Metaphysis
• Epiphyseal-growth plate/disc (hyaline cartilage)
• Epiphyseal line
Epiphyses
• Ends of long bones
• Thin layer of compact bone surrounding spongy bone
• Covered by articular cartilage, hyaline cartilage
• Slippery and smooth

• Each epiphysis meet diaphysis at metaphysis.

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Types of
bone cells
• Osteocytes
Mature bone cells

• Osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells

• Osteoclasts
Bone-destroying cells
Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of
calcium

• Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts

and osteoclasts

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Functions
of• Support
bone: of the body

• Protection of soft organs

• Movement due to attached skeletal muscles

• Storage of minerals

• Blood cell formation

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Types of
bones
Four basic bone types on the basis of
their shapes
1. Long bones
2. Short bones
3. Flat bones
4. Irregular bones
5. Sesamoid bones

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Long
Bones:
• Longest bones in the body.
• Typically longer than wide.
• Have a shaft (Diaphysis) with heads (Epiphysis) at
both ends.
• Outer compact bone and a spongy inner known an
cancellous bone containing bone marrow.
• Both ends are covered in hyaline cartilage to
provide cushion and protection.
• Examples: Femur, Humerus

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Short
bones
• Short bones are wider than its length (generally cube-
shape)
• Consist of only a thin layer of compact bone with
cancellous bone on the inside.
• Have a primary function of providing support and
stability with little movement.
• Examples: Carpals and Tarsals.

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Flat bones
• Thin and flattened
• Usually curved
• Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
• Providing protection to the bodies vital organs and being a base
for muscular attachment.
• Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum, Scapula (shoulder blade)

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Irregular bones

• Irregular shape
• Do not fit into other bone classification categories.
• They primarily consist of cancellous bone, with a thin
outer layer of compact bone.
• Example: Vertebrae

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Sesamoid bones

• Sesamoid bones are usually short or irregular bones,

imbedded in a tendon.

• Present in a tendon where it passes over a joint which

serves to protect the tendon.

• Example: Patella (knee cap)

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 Bone markings
•There are three general classes of bone markings:
•Articulation:
• As the name implies, an articulation is where two bone surfaces come together (articulus = “joint”).
• These surfaces tend to conform to one another, such as one being rounded and the other cupped, to facilitate the function of the
articulation.
•Projection:
• A projection is an area of a bone that projects above the surface of the bone.
• These are the attachment points for tendons and ligaments.
• In general, their size and shape is an indication of the forces exerted through the attachment to the bone.
•Hole:
• A hole is an opening or groove in the bone that allows blood vessels and nerves to enter the bone.
• As with the other markings, their size and shape reflect the size of the vessels and nerves that penetrate the bone at these
points.

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Bone markings

Marking Description Example

Condyle A rounded knob that articulates Condyles of Humerus and femur

Articulations

with another bone

Facet A smooth, flat, slightly concave or Articular facets of the vertebrae

convex articular surface

Head The prominent expanded end of Head of femur

A bone, sometimes rounded

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 Bone markings
Marking Description Example

Crest A narrow ridge Iliac crest of pelvis

Protuberance A bony outgrowth or protruding Mental protuberance of the chin

Extension & Projections

part

Spine A sharp, slender, or narrow Spine of the scapula

process

Tubercle A small, rounded process Greater tubercle of the humerus

Tuberosity A rough elevated surface Tibial tuberosity

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 Bone markings
Marking Description Example

Fossa A shallow, broad, or elongated Iliac fossa

Depressions

basin
Fovea A small pit Fovea capitis of the femur

Sulcus A groove for a tendon, nerve, or Intertubercular sulcus of the

Blood vessel Humerus
Canal A tubular passage or tunnel in a Condylar canal of the skull
Passages and Cavities

Bone
Fissure A slit through a bone Orbital fissures behind the eye

Foramen A hole through a bone, usually Foramen magnum of the skull

round
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Farzana Kausar 04/21/2025 21
Parts of skeletal system
• Axial Skeleton:
• The axial skeleton includes:
• Skull
• Spine
• Ribs
• Sternum
• Appendicular Skeleton:
• It includes the appendages of the body, which are:
• Shoulders
• Arms
• Hips
• Legs
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 Parts of skeletal system
• The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones grouped
as the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
• The axial consists of the bones of the skull, hyoid bone,
ribs and the backbone.
• The appendicular consists of the bones of the upper and
lower extremities (limbs),the bones called girdles, which
connect the extremities to the axial skeleton.
• There are 80 bones in the axial skeleton and 126 in
the appendicular.

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22 bones in skull
6 in middle ears
1 hyoid bone
26 in vertebral
column
25 in thoracic cage

4 in pectoral girdle
60 in upper limbs
60 in lower limbs
2 in pelvic girdle

206 bones in all

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The Axial skeleton
• The part of skeleton which form
axis or central bony part of the
body is called axial skeleton.
• It consist of 80 bones:
•Head/Skull (22 bones)
•Ossicles of ear (6)
•Hyoid Bone (1)
•Vertebral column (26 bones)
•Ribs (24 bones)
•Sternum (01 bone)

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 The skull
• The skull is the upper part of the axial skeleton which is present on the vertebral
column.
• It is divided into two parts;
1) Cranium (08 bones)
2) Viscerocranium (14 bones)
1) Cranium:
The cavity which enclosed the brain and is formed by a number of flat and irregular bones is
called cranium.
• The floor of the cranium is called base.
• Roof is called vault.
• Cranium consist of the following 8 bones:
• 1 Frontal Bone
• 2 Parietal Bone
• 1 Occipital Bone
• 2 Temporal Bone
• 1 Sphenoid Bone
• 1 Ethmoid Bone
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 Cranial bones
• Frontal (1): Anterior and superior part of cranium, forehead and
brow areas, which protects front part of the brain.
• Parietal (2): Superior sides and roof cranium, between frontal
and occipital bones, that protects the top and sides of the brain.
• Temporal (2): Sides and base of cranium at temples that protect
the ear ossicles.
• Occipital (1): Posterior part of the cranium including the base
that protects the posterior part of the brain.
• Sphenoid (1): Base of cranium, anterior to occipital and
temporal bones which houses the pituitary gland.
• Ethmoid (1): Base of cranium, anterior to the body of sphenoid
and forms the roof of nasal cavity and septum.
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Facial
bones
The facial bones make up the structure of the human
face and include a combination of paired and unpaired
bones.
• Mandible (1)
• Maxilla (2)
• Zygomatic Bones (2)
• Nasal Bones (2)
• Lacrimal Bones (2)
• Palatine Bones (2)
• Vomer (1)
• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)

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 Facial bones
• Mandible (1):
• The mandible, or lower jaw, is the largest and only movable bone of the skull. It forms the lower
part of the face and holds the lower teeth.

• Maxilla (2):
• The maxilla is the upper jawbone and forms the central part of the facial skeleton. It contains the
upper teeth and contributes to the formation of the nasal cavity, orbits (eye sockets), and hard
palate.

• Zygomatic Bones (2):

• The zygomatic bones, commonly known as cheekbones, form the prominence of the cheeks and
contribute to the eye sockets. They articulate with the frontal bone, maxilla, and temporal bone.

• Nasal Bones (2):

• The nasalFarzana
bonesKausar
are paired bones that form the bridge of the nose. They 04/21/2025
articulate with the 29
frontal bone superiorly and the maxilla laterally.
 Facial bones
• Lacrimal Bones (2):
• The lacrimal bones are paired and contribute to the formation of the eye sockets. They house
the lacrimal glands, which produce tears.

• Palatine Bones (2):

• The palatine bones are paired and contribute to the formation of the hard palate, which forms
the roof of the mouth and the floor of the nasal cavity.

• Vomer (1):
• The vomer is an unpaired bone that forms the inferior and posterior part of the nasal septum,
dividing the nasal cavity into left and right halves.

• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2):

• The inferior nasal
Farzana conchae are paired, thin, scroll-like bones that extend horizontally
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lateral walls of the nasal cavity, helping to increase its surface area.
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The hyoid
bone
• The only bone that does not
articulate with another bone.

• Serves as a moveable base for the

tongue.

• It plays a key role in speaking and

swallowing.

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 Vertebral column
• It is commonly called the spine or the spinal column which is a
roughly S-shaped column of bones.

• It extends from the base of the skull through the entire length of
the trunk.
• This column consists of 26 separate bones called vertebrae.
• The vertebral column is stabilized by ligaments, muscles and
intervertebral disks to permit twisting and bending movements.
• Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location

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Vertebral
column
• 7 Cervical vertebrae
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
• 1 sacrum (5 fused)
• 1 coccyx (4 fused)

• Vertebrae vary in size and morphology

• The vertebral column of infants consists of 33 bones, in which sacral region has 5 bones and
coccygeal region has 4 bones which are not yet fused.

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 Vertebral column
The vertebrae in the vertebral column are arranged as follows:
• Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7): First (Atlas), second (Axis) and seventh vertebrae are
modified; third through sixth are typical, support head and allow movement of neck.
• Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12): Articulate with ribs; have heart-shaped vertebral bodies.
• Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L5): Largest, strongest vertebrae, bear the most body weight,
allow forward and backward bending of spine.
• Sacral Vertebrae (S1-S5): Wedge-shaped, made up of 5 fused bones, support the
vertebral column and give strength and stability to the pelvis.
• Coccygeal Vertebrae (Co1-Co4): Triangular tail bone (4 bones fused to form 1), united
with the sacrum by intervertebral disk.

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Structure of a typical
vertebra

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 Thoracic cage
• The cage-like thoracic skeleton protects the heart, the lungs and some
abdominal organs. Thoracic cage consist of:
• 12 Pairs Of Ribs
• 12 Thoracic Vertebrae
• 1 Sternum
• Costal Cartilages
• True ribs are directly attached to the sternum (first seven pairs)
• Three false ribs are joined to the 7th rib
• Two pairs of floating ribs
• Ribs are long, curved bones, varying in length and width.
• With costal cartilages, they provide flexible mechanism for breathing and
support bones of upper extremities.
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Farzana Kausar 04/21/2025 40
 sternum
• The sternum is a partially T-shaped vertical bone that
forms the anterior portion of the chest wall centrally.
• The sternum connects the ribs via the costal
cartilages forming the anterior rib cage.
• The sternum is divided anatomically into three
segments:
• Manubrium
• Body
• Xiphoid Process.

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 The axial skeleton (quiz)
1. What is the axial skeleton, and what structures does it include?

Answer: The axial skeleton is the central portion of the skeleton,

including the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.
2. Describe the function of the vertebral column in the axial skeleton.

Answer: The vertebral column provides support for the body, protects
the spinal cord, and allows for flexibility and movement.
3. How many bones are in the adult human axial skeleton?

Answer: The adult human axial skeleton consists of 80 bones.

4. What is the main function of the skull bones in the axial skeleton?

Answer: Skull bones protect the brain and house sensory organs like the
eyes and ears.
5. Name the bone that forms the forehead and the upper eye sockets.

Answer: The frontal bone forms the forehead and upper eye sockets.
6. What are sutures, and what is their role in the skull?

Answer: Sutures are fibrous joints between skull bones that provide
structural stability and protect the brain.
7. Which bone in the axial skeleton is unique and does not articulate with any other bones?

Answer: The hyoid bone is unique and does not articulate directly with
other bones.
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The appendicular
skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton is composed of bones which lie on the lateral sides of the
mid axial line of our body and consists of the hanging bones.
• The primary function is movement.
• It can be divided into two groups;
•The upper extremities (Pectoral girdle and the bones of upper limbs)
•The lower extremities (Pelvic girdle and the bones of lower limbs)

•Girdle is the bony or cartilaginous arch that supports the limbs of the
vertebrates.
•Girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
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 The upper extremities
• The upper extremity is connected to and supported by the axial skeleton by only one
joint (pectoral girdle or the shoulder joint) and many muscles.
• The joint is the sternoclavicular joint between the manubrium of the sternum and
the clavicle.
• The upper extremities consist of 64 bones which include:
• Clavicle (2)
• Scapula (2)
• Humorous(2)
• Radius/ulna (4)
• Carpels (16)
• Metacarpals (10)
• Phalanges (28)
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Clavicle (2):
• It is a collar bone, double curved long bone with
rounded medial end and flattened lateral end.

• It holds the shoulder joint and arm away from thorax

so upper limb can swing freely.

Scapula (2):
• It is a shoulder blade which is flat and triangular with
horizontal spine separating fossae.

• It is the site of attachment of muscles of arm and chest.

• The glenoid fossa receives the head of Humerus.

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Humerus (2):
• It is the longest and the largest bone of the upper
limb.
• It forms ball and socket joint with the glenoid fossa
of scapula.
• Muscles of the shoulder and arm attach to the
Humerus permitting arm to flex and extend at
elbow.

Radius- Ulna (4):

• Radius is the shorter of two bones present in
forearm.
• It allows forearm to rotate in radial motion.
• Ulna is the larger of the two bones in forearm.
• Larger proximal end consists of olecranon process
(prominence of elbow).
• It forms hinge joint at the elbow.
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Carpals (16):
• They are small and short bones of the wrist.
• 8 carpals are arranged in 2 transverse rows of 4.
• SHE LOOKS TOO PRETTY, TRY TO CATCH HER.
• They help in slight gliding movement because of attached
ligaments.

Metacarpals (10):
• They are five miniature long bones in each hand in fan like
arrangement.
• They articulate with the fingers at metacarpophalangeal
joint (the knuckles).
• They aid in opposition movement of thumb and enable
cupping of hand.
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Phalanges (28):

• They are miniature long bones; 2 in each

thumb and 3 in each finger.

• They articulate with each other at inter-

phalangeal joint and allow fingers to
participate in stable grips.
• Each finger has 3 phalanges (the distal,
middle/intermediate, and proximal); the
thumb only has 2 (proximal and distal.

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 The upper extremity
(quiz)
1. Which bones form the forearm in the upper extremity?
Answer: The radius and ulna are the two bones that form the forearm in the upper extremity.
2. How many bones make up the shoulder girdle in one upper extremity?
Answer: The shoulder girdle in one upper extremity comprises two bones: the clavicle and the scapula.
3. Which bones make up the wrist?
Answer: The carpals, a group of eight small bones, make up the wrist.
4. What is the name of the bone that connects the scapula to the sternum?
Answer: The clavicle, or collarbone, connects the scapula to the sternum.
5. How many metacarpal bones are there in one hand?
Answer: There are five metacarpal bones in one hand.
6. Which bone articulates with the first metacarpal, allowing for opposable thumb movement?
Answer: The trapezium bone in the wrist articulates with the first metacarpal, enabling opposable
thumb movement.
7. Which bone articulates with the humerus to form the elbow joint?
Answer: The ulna articulates with the humerus to form the elbow joint.
8. How many phalanges are there in one hand?
Answer: Each hand has a total of 14 phalanges, with three in each finger (proximal, middle, and distal)
and two in the thumb (proximal and distal).

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 The lower extremities
• It can be divided into two parts; the pelvic girdle or the hip joint and the bones of lower
limbs.

• The lower extremities consist of 62 bones which include:

• Pelvic girdle (2)
• Femur (2)
• Patella (2)
• Tibia/Fibula (4)
• Tarsals (14)
• Metatarsals (10)
• Phalanges (28)
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Pelvic girdle (2):

• The bone is called pelvis or hip bone or coxal bone.

• It is an irregular bone formed by the fusion of ilium,

ischium and pubis (which are separate in children).

• The hip bone is fused with the sacrum and coccyx to form
a pelvis.

• The head of femur fits into the acetabulum in the pubis of hip
bone to form a ball and socket joint.

• Pelvis girdle is also the site of attachment of trunk and lower limb
muscles.

• It also transmits body weight to femur.

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Difference between male &
female pelvis
• Female pelves are larger and wider (oval shape) than
male pelves (heart shape).
• Male iliac crests are higher than females, causing their
false pelves to look taller and narrower.
• Male pelves are large & heavy, while the female pelves
are light & delicate.
• Male have narrow deep true pelves and outlet vs
female have wide & shallow outlet and pelves.
• Male pubic bone tends to have less than 90 degree
pubic arch and female have more than 90 degree.

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Femur (2):
• It is a typical long bone in the thigh (also called a thigh bone).
• It is the longest, strongest and heaviest bone.
• It forms a ball and socket joint with the pelvic bones.
• Femur provides articular surfaces for knee and supports the
body.

Patella (2):
• It is roughly triangular or circular flat sesamoid bone
(developed from the tendon quadriceps femoris).
• It increases the leverage for quadriceps muscle by keeping
tendon away from the axis of rotation.
• It protects the knee joint.

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Tibia (2):
• Tibia is the larger long bone of the lower leg which articulates
with the femur, fibula and tarsals.
• It supports the body weight transmitting it from femur to the
tarsals.

Fibula (2):
• Is the smaller long bone of the lower leg.
• It articulates proximally with tibia and distally with tarsals.
• It bears little body weight but gives strength to the ankle joint.

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Tarsals (14):
• They are short bones in the ankle region.
• They are 7 in each ankle and with the metatarsals
form the arches of foot.
• THE CAB in NEW MEXICO IS LAND CRUISER
• THE CIRCUS NEEDS MORE INTERESTING LITTLE
CLOWNS
• They also bear body weight.

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Metatarsals (10):
• They are miniature long bones, 5 in each foot and
form the sole.
• With tarsals, they form arches of feet and also
improve stability while standing.
• Metatarsals also absorb shocks, bear weight and aid
in locomotion.

Phalanges (28):
• They are the miniature long bones in the toes.
• They are arranged as in hand (2 in each big toe and 3 in
each other toe).
• They provide stability during locomotion.
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 The lower extremity
(quiz)
1. How many bones are there in the adult human lower extremity (one leg)?
Answer: The adult human lower extremity (one leg) consists of 31 bones. Including pelvic bone.
2. How many tarsal bones are there in one foot?
Answer: There are seven tarsal bones in one foot.
3. How many metatarsal bones are there in one foot?
Answer: Each foot has five metatarsal bones.
4. What is the total number of phalanges in one foot?
Answer: Each foot has a total of 14 phalanges, with three in each toe (proximal, middle, and distal)
except for the big toe, which has two (proximal and distal).
5. How many bones make up the ankle joint in one leg?
Answer: The ankle joint in one leg is formed by three bones: the tibia, fibula, and talus.
6. How many bones are present in the thigh of one leg?
Answer: The thigh of one leg consists of one bone, the femur.
7. How many bones are there in the region commonly referred to as the "shin"?
Answer: The region commonly referred to as the "shin" is primarily composed of one bone, which
is the tibia.
8. What is the total number of bones in one knee joint?
Answer: One knee joint is formed by three bones: the femur, tibia, and patella.
9. How many bones are there in the hip joint of one leg?
Answer: The hip joint in one leg is formed by two bones: the femur and the hip bone.

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 Changes in human
•
skeleton
In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage made of mesenchymal cells and chondrocytes.
• Intramembranous ossification
• Endochondral ossification (Primary ossification center, secondary ossification center)

• During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone

• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints

• Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood

• New cartilage is continuously formed
• Older cartilage becomes ossified
• Cartilage is broken down
• Bone replaces cartilage
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Changes in human
skeleton

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 summary
• Structure: The human skeleton is a dynamic framework of bones and cartilage that provides
support, protection, and attachment sites for muscles, contributing to the body's structural
integrity.
• Composition: Comprising 206 bones in adults, the skeleton is divided into two main parts—axial
(skull, vertebral column, and ribcage) and appendicular (limbs and their girdles), each serving
distinct functions.
• Functionality: Bones are essential for bodily movements, offering a rigid framework for muscles to
act upon. They also protect vital organs, such as the skull safeguarding the brain and the ribcage
protecting the heart and lungs.
• Blood Cell Production: Bone marrow, found within certain bones, plays a crucial role in
hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets.
• Adaptability: The skeleton is not a static structure; it undergoes continuous remodeling throughout
life, responding to mechanical stress and adapting to changing physiological demands, ensuring
optimal functionality and strength.
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 TE M
S YS
Y ST EM
TALS
K E LE
S

TAL
ELE
SK
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references
• Ross & Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness 12th Edition
• [Link]

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