BASICELNG

102
ELECTRONICS
BSc RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
BSc ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DELIVERED BY DR. K. DIAWUO AND KANKAM OKATAKYIE ADU

DEPAERMENT OF ELECTRICAL ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES
SUNYANI
SEMESTER 2, JAN, 2014
The nature of Atoms
Every material is made up of one or more elements,

An element is a substance composed entirely of atoms of the same kind.

The atoms of different elements differ in their structure and this accounts
for different elements possessing different characteristics.

An atom consists of the central nucleus of positive charges.

The nucleus of every atom, except hydrogen, is made up of protons and

neutrons

The central nucleus is also surrounded by small negatively charged particles

called electrons.
The nature of Atoms
These electrons revolve in different paths or orbits around the nucleus

Nucleus: Positive and neutral charges

Electrons revolving in different paths around the

nucleus
The nature of Atoms
An electrostatic force of attraction between electrons and the nucleus holds up
electrons in orbits.

An electron is a negatively charged particle having negligible mass.

Each electron has a mass of 9.11X10-31 kg and a negative charge of 1.602X10-19
C.

 Each proton has a mass of 1.6-27 kg. The neutron carries no resultant charge and
its mass is approximately equal to that of a proton.

The charge on an electron is equal but opposite to that on a proton

Under ordinary conditions, the number of electrons is equal to the number of

protons in an atom.

Therefore an atom is neutral as a whole.

The nature of Atoms

Atomic weight = Number of protons + number of neutron

Atomic number = Number of protons or number of electrons

The number of electrons in any orbit is given by where n is the

number of the orbit.

For example:
 I orbit contains electrons 2x1² =2
II orbit contains electrons 2x2 ²=8
III orbit contains electrons 2x3² =18
Valence electrons
The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 valence electrons.

The valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of

a material.

Atoms with:

Valence electrons less than 4 are usually metals and a conductor.

Examples are sodium, magnesium and aluminium.

Valence electrons more than 4 are usually non-metals and an insulator.

Examples are nitrogen, sulphur and neon.

4 valence electrons have both metallic and non-metallic properties and

are usually a semi-conductor. Examples are carbon, silicon and
germanium.
 Energy bands

In a case of a single isolated atom,

an electron in any orbit has definite
energy

However, when atoms are brought

together as a solid, an atom is
influenced by the forces from other
atoms. Hence an electron in any
orbit can have a range of energies
rather than a single energy. These
range of energy levels is known as
the energy band.

The energy band consist of:

The conduction Band
The forbidden Energy Gap
The valance Band
Conduction and valence Bands
• Metals and semiconductors have a unique property that separates them from
non-conductive insulators.

• Within any material, there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons
may exist. These are the valence and conduction bands

• In metals and insulators, the difference between energy orbitals are so small
that electrons can be excited from lower energy orbitals to higher energy levels.

• These small orbital energy differences are referred to as bands, these bands are
so close together in energy that it takes a very small amount of energy to
promote electrons to these higher band levels.

• The higher energy level that the valence electrons can be excited to is referred
to as the conduction band, because the electrons in this band are free to carry
an electric current.
Conduction and valence Bands

• As shown in the diagram below, the key difference between

semiconductors and conductors is that conductors have a natural
overlap between their valence electrons and the conduction band,
Conduction and valence Bands
• while semiconductors have a noticeable gap between the two. The
result is that the electrons of conductors are able to carry a current
under any condition.
Conduction and valence Bands

• Meanwhile, the conductive ability of semiconductors requires energy

to be put into the semiconductor material.
• As the energy input into the semiconductor is increased, more
electrons are promoted into the conduction band, increasing the
number of available conducting electrons. This energy usually comes
in the form of heat, which is why semiconductors are able to conduct
more effectively as they rise in temperature.
 Summary
Semiconductors allow conduction by means of negative charge carriers, which are electrons, or
positive charge carriers, which are holes.

The energy band gap in semiconductors is small enough that thermal excitation is sufficient for
significant numbers of electrons to be able to move up from the valence to the conduction
band.

Intrinsic semiconductors, such as pure silicon, will always have equal numbers of holes and
electrons since each conduction electron will leave behind a hole.

Semiconductors may be doped with impurities that add either extra electrons or holes to the
lattice.

These doped semiconductors now have a majority charge carrier present and are known as
extrinsic semiconductors.

Group III doping agents result in p-type extrinsic semiconductors, which contain extra holes.
Semiconductors

• Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies in between

that of a conductor and Insulator. They have narrow forbidden gap.
Example: Silicon, germanium, Gallium, arsenide.

• Comparatively smaller energy is required to push the electrons from

valence band to conduction band. At low temperatures the valence
band is completely filled and conduction band is completely empty.
Classification of semiconductors

• Semiconductors are classified into two groups. These are:

• a) Intrinsic semiconductors.

• b) Extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors
• A semiconductor is said to be intrinsic if it contains no impurities and no
crystalline defects.

• At absolute zero, every electron is at the lowest energy state. Electrons

occupy all of the electronic states in the valence band, and the states in
the conduction band are empty.
• At room or higher temperatures, electrons acquire thermal energy,
which is transferred to them from the crystal lattice.

• The atoms in the crystal lattice vibrate, and these vibrations can be
transmitted through the crystal as acoustic wave called phonons.
Intrinsic semiconductors

• Phonons can excite electrons from the valence band into the
conduction band.

• This leaves a vacancy called hole in the valence band. The electron is
now free, and there is a free hole in the valence band. Every electron
that escapes to conduction band creates a hole in the valence band,
creating an electron-hole pair

• When electron-hole pair is created by absorption of phonons, we call

the process thermal generation.
Extrinsic semiconductors

• Extrinsic semiconductors are created by incorporating an impurity

(dopant) atoms into the intrinsic material. The process is called
doping.

• The dopant can either be a donor or acceptor. Depending on the type

of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as
n-type and p-type semiconductor
 N-type semiconductor

• Semiconductor devices are

made primarily of silicon
(silicon's element symbol is
"Si").

• Pure silicon forms rigid crystals

because of its four valence
(outermost) electron structure

• one Si atom bonds to four

other Si atoms forming a very
regularly shaped diamond
pattern.
 N-type semiconductor

• When a pentavalent atom like

phosphorus is added to silicon,
four of the phosphorous atom’s
valence electrons are used to
form covalent bonds with four
adjacent silicon atoms, leaving an
extra electron.

• The extra electron becomes a

free or conduction electron. This
is called a donor electron. The
number of conduction electrons
can be controlled by the number
of impurity atoms added to the
silicon.
 P-Type semiconductor

• The P-type is produced by doping

silicon with trivalent atom such as
boron and is known as acceptor atom
because they leave a hole in the
semiconductor’s crystal structure.

• As illustrated in the figure, three of

the boron atom’s valence electrons
are used to form covalent bond: and,
since four electrons are required, a
hole is formed with each trivalent
atom.
Conduction and valence Bands

 Electrons in the conduction bands are either escaped from their

atom or are weakly held to the nucleus.

By applying a relatively small amount of energy, electrons in the

conduction bands can easily be moved about within the material.
[the source of energy can be heat, light or electricity]

This explains why conductivity of materials increases with increasing

temperature

The conduction band is the highest energy level that the valence
electrons can be excited to. this is, because the electrons in this band
are free to carry an electric current.
 Drift and Diffusion

• We now have some idea of the number

density of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) present in a semiconductor material
from the work we covered in the last chapter.
Since current is the rate of flow of charge ,
we shall be able calculate currents flowing in
real devices since we know the number of
charge carriers. There are two current
mechanisms which cause charges to move in
semiconductors. The two mechanisms we
shall study in this chapter are drift and
diffusion.
 Carrier Drift
• Electron and holes will move under the influence of an applied electric field since
the field exert a force on charge carriers (electrons and holes).

F qE
• These movements result a current of ; Id

I d nqVd A
Id : drift current n: number of charge carriers per unit volume

Vd : drift velocity of charge carrier q: charge of the electron

A: area of the semiconductor

 Carrier Mobility , 
Vd  E
E: applied field
: mobility of charge carrier

 Vd 
 is a proportionality factor   
E

 So  is a measure how easily charge carriers move under the influence of

an applied field or 
determines how mobile the charge carriers are.
N - Type Si
V
+ -
V
n – type Si
E
L
e-
Vd
Electric field
Electron movement
Current flow

Current carriers are mostly electrons.

 P - Type Si

V
+ -
V
p – type Si E
L
hole
Vd
Electric field
Hole movement
Current flow

Current carriers are mostly holes.

  Carrier Mobility
Macroscopic understanding

Vd

E

In a perfect Crystal

 0
  
It is a superconductor
 
• A perfect crystal has a perfect periodicity and therefore the
potential seen by a carrier in a perfect crystal is completely
periodic.
• So the crystal has no resistance to current flow and
behaves as a superconductor. The perfect periodic
potential does not impede the movement of the charge
carriers. However, in a real device or specimen, the
presence of impurities, interstitials, subtitionals,
temperature , etc. creates a resistance to current flow.
• The presence of all these upsets the periodicity of the
potential seen by a charge carrier.
 Drift Current Equations

For undoped or intrinsic semiconductor ; n=p=ni

For electron For hole

J n nqE  n J p  pqE  p
drift drift mobility
number mobility number
current current of holes
of free of of free
for for holes
electrons electron holes per
electrons unit
per unit
volume volume
 Drift Current Equations

Total current density

J i J e  J h
J i nqE  n  pqE  P
since n  p ni
J i ni q (  n   p ) E
For a pure
intrinsic
semiconductor
 Drift Current Equations

J total ? for doped or extrinsic semiconductor

n-type semiconductor;

n  p  J T nq n E  N D qn E
where ND is the shallow donor concentration

p-type semiconductor;

p  n  J T  pq p E  N Aq p E
where NA is the shallow acceptor concentration
Diffusion current
Nature attempts to reduce concentration
gradients to zero.
Example: a bad odour in a room.
In semiconductors, this “flow of carriers” from
one region of higher concentration to lower
concentration results in a “diffusion current”.
Diffusion current
Ficks law describes diffusion as the flux, F, (of particles
in our case) is proportional to the gradient in
concentration.

F= - Dη∇
Where:
The η is the concentration
D coefficient of diffusion t

For electrons and holes, the diffusion current density

(flux of particles times -/+q) can thus, be written as,
summary
• Free electrons in the conduction band are moved under the influence
of applied electric field Since electrons have negative charges, they a
repelled by the negative terminal of the applied voltage and attracted
towards the positive terminal.

In a good conductor (metal) as shown in figure (a) the current flow is due to
free electrons only.
 summary
• This involves the movement of holes
• Holes may be thought of as positive charged particles and as such,
they move through an electric field in the direction opposite to
electrons

In a semiconductor as shown in figure (b). The current flow is due to both holes
and electrons moving in opposite directions.
P-N Junction

• If a single semiconducting crystal is doped in such a way that one end

is p-type and the other n-type, then some very useful properties
come into play.

• The interface between the p-type and n-type sections is known as a

p–n junction. This is also called semiconductor diode
Depletion zone
• In this boundary or region, electrons from the n-type material may
diffuse across the boundary and combine with holes from the p-type
material, and vice versa.

• This results in a lack of majority charge carriers in the immediate

vicinity of the junction and as such the region is known as the
depletion zone. The p–n junction greatly affects the conductivity of
the semiconductor as a whole.
P-N Junction
• When electrons from the n-type material diffuse into the p-type
material, they form negative ions as they combine with holes.
Positive ions are also left behind in the n-type material. Eventually,
this process results in the diffusion of electrons or holes as a result of
Coulomb attraction and repulsion laws.
 Biasing
• Biasing means connecting a p-n junction to an external DC source

• There are two types of biasing:

Forward biasing
Reverse biasing
Forward biasing
• forward biasing means connecting the
P-Region of the diode to the positive
terminal of the battery and N-region
also connected to the negative region.

• During the forward bias the positive

of the battery pumps more holes into
the P-region of the diode.

• The negative terminal also pumps

electrons into the N-region

• This process results in excess of

charge in P and N regions. this will
apply pressure on the depletion
region and will make it shrink.
 Forward biasing
• As the voltage increases the depletion
layer will become thinner and thinner
and hence diode will offer lesser and
lesser resistance. Since the resistance
decreases the current will increase
(though not proportional) to the
voltage.

• At one particular voltage level Vf

called the threshold / firing / cut-off
voltage the depletion layer disappears
(overwhelmed by the charge) and
hence from this point on the diode
starts to conduct very easily. From this
point on the diode current increases
exponentially to the voltage applied.
 Forward biasing

• Therefore in
conclusion, when a
diode is forward
biased, it will easily
conduct when the
applied voltage
exceeds the threshold
voltage Vf
Reverse biasing

• In reverse bias the P-type region

is connected to negative voltage
and N-type is connected to
positive terminal as shown.

• Under this condition the holes

in P-type gets filled by electrons
from the battery / cell (in other
words the holes get sucked out
of the diode).

• The electrons in N-type material

is also sucked out of the diode
by the positive terminal of the
battery. This leaves the diode
depleted of charge.
Reverse biasing

• So initially the depletion layer

widens (see image) and it occupies
the entire diode.

• The resistance offered by the

diode is very huge. The current
that flows in reverse bias is only
due to minority charge which is in
Nano amperes in silicon and micro
amperes in high power silicon and
germanium diodes.
Zero biasing
• In Zero Bias condition, no external DC
source is applied to the PN-junction.

• If the diodes’s terminals are shorted

together, a few holes (majority
carriers) in the P-type material with
enough energy to overcome the
potential barrier will move across the
junction against this barrier potential.

• This is known as the forward current

(If ).Holes generated in the N-type
material (minority carriers), find this
situation favourable and move across
the junction in the opposite direction.
This is known as the reverse current
and is denoted by Ir
 Zener diode

•In the reverse bias condition, when voltage

is applied to a diode, a small amount of
current flows.
•This is called the leakage current, flowing
through the diode.
•At a certain voltage called the breakdown
voltage, the current drastically increases.
 Zener diode

• This increased current is called the avalanche current,

because it spikes so drastically up.

• The breakdown voltage point is also important, not just

because of the avalanche current, but more importantly
because, once the voltage of the zener diode has
reached this point, it remains constant at this voltage,
even though the current across it may increase largely.

• This makes the zener diode useful in applications such

as voltage regulation
Zener diode
• The zener diode has the
important characteristic in
that once the voltage
across a zener has
reached this breakdown
voltage, also called a
zener diode's zener
voltage, VZ, the voltage
that a zener drops across
itself will not continue to
increase.
Zener diode

• For example, if a zener diode has a zener

voltage of 5.1V, and the voltage feeding the
diode is approximately around 5.1V, the zener
will drop the 5.1V across its terminals. Now if
the voltage supplying it continues to increase,
to say 12V, the zener diode will maintain its
zener voltage, 5.1V, even though the voltage
(and current) supplying it continues to increase
Zener diode
Simple circuit for testing a
Zener diode
Zener diode
The hall effect
• As illustrated in the
figure shown. The block
of conductor can be a
metal or semi conductor
called the hall element
is placed perpendicular
in a magnetic field.

• The magnetic field B

acts perpendicular in the
positive y direction.
 Hall effect.
• If a current I flows through the
conductor, a magnetic field E
due to the flow of current is
also experienced by the
conductor.
• The two magnetic fields B and
E produces two forces that
acts on charge carriers in the
conductor.
• These forces are:
• 1 Magnetic force due to B
• 2. Electric Force due to E
Hall Effect
• The Magnetic force B
acts perpendicular on
the charge carriers
pushing them to
concentrate at one edge
of the conductor

• As the charge carriers

build up at one end of
the conductor, the
potential at that end of
the conductor becomes
higher relative to the
opposite side.
Hall effect

• This causes a potential

deference VH to build up
across the edge of the
conductor. This voltage is
called the Hall voltage.
Applications of Hall Effect
Hall Effect is used to determine:
• 1. Whether a semi-conductor is n-type or p-type
• 2. Resistivity
• 2. Conductivity
• 3. Carrier concentration,
• 4. Mobility
• 6. The sign of the current carrying charge
• 7. Charge density.
• 8. It is used as magnetic field meter.
Applications of Hall Effect

1. Whether a semi-conductor is n-type or p-type

If the semiconductor is N-type, then electrons will be

the charge carriers and these electrons will
accumulate on one end of the conductor, making
that surface negatively charged with respect to the
opposite surface. Hence a potential called Hall
voltage appears between the surfaces.
 Applications of Hall Effect

• Similarly, if the charge carriers are positive charges,

one end of the conductor becomes positively
charged with respect to the other surface. then the
semiconductor is of P-type. In this way, by seeing
the polarity of Hall voltage we can determine
whether the semiconductor is of P-type or N-type
Applications of Hall Effect

2. To determine the resistivity of a conductor

Electrical resistivity, represented by the Greek letter ρ

(rho), is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the
flow of electric current. The lower the resistivity, the more
readily the material permits the flow of electric charge.

Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal quantity of

resistivity. Conductivity is a measure of how well a material
conducts an electric current. Electric conductivity may be
represented by the Greek letter σ (sigma), κ (kappa), or γ
(gamma).
Resistivity of a conductor

•Metals are good electrical conductors (high

conductivity and low resistivity), while non-metals
are mostly poor conductors (low conductivity and
high resistivity).

•The more familiar term electrical resistance

measures how difficult it is for a piece of material to
conduct electricity - this depends on the size of the
piece: the resistance is higher for a longer or
narrower section of material.
Resistivity of a conductor

• To remove the effect of size from resistance,

resistivity is used - this is a material property which
does not depend on size.

•Resistivity is affected by temperature - for most

materials the resistivity increases with temperature.
An exception is semiconductors (e.g. silicon) in which
the resistivity decreases with temperature.
To determine the resistivity of a
conductor
To determine the resistivity of a
conductor
To determine the resistivity of a
conductor
• R=Vp/I…………………………….………………..(1)
• =(RA)/L…………………………………………(2)
• From (2) R=(L)/A……….…………………..(3)
• Equating (1) and (3)
• VP/I=L/A
• VpA=LI
• =VpA/LI
• But A=tW
•  =Vptw/LI
Conductivity

• Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal quantity of

resistivity. Conductivity is a measure of how well a
material conducts an electric current. Electric
conductivity may be represented by the Greek letter
σ (sigma)

σ = 1/
 quiz
• 1, With the aid of a diagram, explain how a
P-N junction is formed.
• 2. What happens when a P-N Junction is forward
biased
• 3. What happens when a P-N Junction is reversed biased
• 4. How is a zener diode formed?
• 5. what is the difference between a diode and a
zener diode
• 6. In the circuit below, if the variable power supply is set
at 12V and a current of 0.12 A flows through the
circuit, what will be the multi-meter reading if the zener
diode is rated Vz=6.3V. Explain your answer.
• 7. What is a depletion zone as used in semiconductors?
• 8. Under what condition will a depletion zone widen? Explain how
this happens.
Carrier Mobility

• Any motion of free carriers in a semiconductor leads to a

current.

• This motion can be caused by an electric field due to an

externally applied voltage,
 Carrier Mobility

• Carrier mobility is how quickly an electron can move through a

metal when pulled by an electric field.

• In semiconductors, there is a corresponding quantity for holes,

called hole mobility. The term carrier mobility refers in general to
both electron and hole mobility in semiconductors.
 Carrier Mobility
• The process by which charged particles move because of an
electric field is called drift
• The charged particles within a semiconductor move with a
velocity proportional to the electric field.
• VcE
• Vc=ʯE
• The constant of proportionality (ʯ ) is called carrier mobility

Carrier Mobility ʯ= Vc/E

Where Vc= Drift velocity of carriers.

If carriers are electrons we have Ve=Drift velocity of electrons
If carriers are holes, we have Vh= Drift velocity of holes
Drift velocity

 
v h  p E
 
ve   n E
 Drift Current

• Any motion of free carriers in a semiconductor leads to a

current flow.
• As the electric field is applied to a semiconductor, the
negatively charged electrons and positively charged hole are
accelerated in the opposite direction. The net motion of
charges results in electric current which is always in the
direction of applied electric field. The current produced in
this way is called as Drift current
• I drift = I n(drift) + I P(drift)

• For a semiconductor, we often talk about current density J

• J drift = Jn (drift) + JP(drift)
• As one applies an electric field to a semiconductor, the electrostatic
force causes the carriers to first accelerate and then reach a constant
average velocity, v, due to collisions with impurities and lattice
vibrations.
Introduction to Rectification

• A direct current (DC) flows from the positive

to negative terminal of a source supply when
connected to a circuit. The current flows
continuously in a single direction. However,
in the case of alternating current(AC), the
direction of the flow keeps on changing on
the basis of the frequency of the alternator
that is producing it.
Introduction to Rectification

• This means that the current first flows in one

direction in the circuit, rises to the peak value
and comes down, and then changes the
direction, reaches the peak value and again
comes back to normal. The rise and fall of the
current follows a sine wave pattern that
forms the characteristic of alternating
current.
Introduction to Rectification

• In a situation wherein direct current (DC) is

required from a source supplying alternating
current(AC), the AC needs to be rectified in
order to make it usable for the D.C purposes.
This process of rectifying the AC current is
known as rectification
Introduction to Rectification

Thus, rectificatifier can be defined as a an

electrical device that converts alternating
current (AC), which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current (DC), which flows
in only one direction. The process is known as
rectification.
Introduction to Rectification

• In this process the flow of current in only one

direction is permitted while in the other
direction is resisted. This means that in an
alternating current (A.C) the positive
component of the current is only permitted
to pass whereas the negative is resisted.
Types of Rectification

• There are two major types of rectification

these are:
Half wave rectification
full wave rectification
Half Wave Rectification
• It is the simplest type of rectifier and it is made with just one diode.

• When the voltage of the alternating current is positive, the diode

becomes forward-biased and current flows through it.

• When the voltage is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the

current stops.

• The result is a cropped copy of the alternating current waveform with

only positive voltage. This pulsating direct current is adequate for
some components, but others require a more steady current.
Half Wave Rectification
Half-Wave Rectification

• Since a transformer is involved in this kind of

rectification, it important to know the relationship
between the primary and the secondary. Which is :
NP/Ns=Vp/Vs

• The Root mean Square [RMS] value of the

voltage and maximum voltage value is related
by the equation:
Vrms=Vm/√2
Half-Wave Rectification

• If the type of diode is not specified, assume

the diode to be of silicon type.

• For an ideal diode, forward resistance rf=0

Half-Wave Rectification
• Average Value of the Half-Wave output Voltage
• The average value of a half-wave output is the value of
the output dc voltage. It can be calculated with the
following equation where Vmax is the peak value of the
half-wave output voltage.

Vdc=Vmax = 0.318v
Ԥ

Vdc = 0.318Vs =0.45Vs

√2
Where Vs is the input source voltage
Half-Wave Rectification
• Calculate the current Idc flowing through a
100Ω resistor connected to a 240v single
phase half-wave, and also the power
consumed by the load
Half-Wave Rectification
Effect of Diode Barrier Potential on Half Rectifier
output voltage
• In the previous example, the diode was considered
as ideal.
• In a practical diode the barrier potential is taken
into account.
• In practical diodes, the output voltage has a peak
value that is 0.7v less than the peak value of the
input voltage.

Output peak voltage Vp out = Vp in-0.7v

Half-Wave Rectification

• Example
• Determine the peak output voltage and the
average value of the output voltage of the
rectifier with barrier potential of 0.7V and an
input voltage of 5v.
 Half-Wave Rectification
• Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifiers
п= output DC power/input AC power

Rectifier efficiency, η = DC output power/input AC power

Idc= Im
π

The DC output power is given by: Pdc= I²dc x RL = (Im / π)² x RL

r r
The AC input power is given by: Pac= I²rms ( f + RL) , where f is diode resistance.

For a half-wave rectified wave: Irms= Im

2
 Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifiers
cont’d
• Therefore, Pac=(Im/2)² x (rf+RL)

• Thus rectifier efficiency, η = DC output power

AC input power

= [(Im/π)²xRL]

r
[(Im/2)²x ( f+RL)]

= 0.406 RL/ (rf + RL)

= 0.406 / (1+rf/RL)

• The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL

• Therefore, maximum rectifier efficiency = 40.6%. This means only 40.6% of the
 Disadvantages of Half-Wave
Rectifier
•Theoutput current in the load contains, in addition to dc
component, unwanted ac components.

• Ripple factor is high hence elaborate filtering is, therefore,

required to give steady dc output.

•The power output and, therefore, rectification efficiency is

quite low. This is due to the fact that power is delivered
only half of the time
Full wave Rectification

• There are two types of full wave ratification.

These are:
Full Wave with Centre tap Transformer
Full Wave Bridge rectification
Full-Wave Centre tap rectifier
Full-Wave Centre Tap Rectifier
cont’d

• A centre-tapped rectifier is a type of full-

wave rectifier that uses two diodes
connected to the secondary of a centre-
tapped transformer, as shown above. The
input voltage is coupled through the
transformer to the centre-tapped secondary.
Half of the total secondary voltage appears
between the centre tap and each ends of the
secondary winding.
 Full-Wave Centre Tap Rectifier
cont’d

• For the positive half-cycle of the input

voltage, the polarities of the secondary
voltages feeding diode D1 becomes positive
relative to the other terminal. This condition
forward-biases diode D1 and reverse-biases
diode D2. The current path is through D1 and
the load resistor R, as indicated.
Full-Wave Centre Tap Rectifier
cont’d
• For the negative half-cycle of the input
voltage, the voltage polarities on the
secondary changes. The terminal feeding
diode D2 becomes positive relative to the the
other terminal. Current path is through diode
D2 to the load.
 Full-Wave Centre Tap Rectifier
cont’d
• This form of circuit saves on rectifier diodes
compared to a diode bridge, but has poorer
use of the transformer windings. Center-
tapped two-diode rectifiers were a common
feature of power supplies in vacuum tube
equipment. Modern semiconductor diodes
are low-cost and compact so usually a four-
diode bridge is used.
 Full-Wave Centre Tap Rectifier cont’d
Assuming no losses,
DC voltage = 2 Vm
π
= 0.637Vm
 Full-Wave Centre Tap Rectifier
cont’d
• Disadvantages
1. Since, each diode uses only one-half of the
transformers secondary voltage the dc. output is
comparatively small.
2. It is difficult to locate the centre-tap on secondary
winding of the transformer.
3. The diodes used must have high Peak-inverse
voltage.
 The Bridge Rectifier

The full wave bridge rectification uses four individual

rectifying diodes connected in a bridged configuration
to produce the desired output but does not require a
special centre tapped transformer, although some do.
The 4 diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in series
pairs with only two diodes conducting current during
each half cycle.

.
 The Bridge Rectifier
mode of operation
•During the positive half cycle of the supply,
the positive terminal of the supply voltage
is positive relative to the negative
terminals. diodes D1 and D2 becomes
forward biased and therefore conduct in
series causing current to flows through the
load as shown below while diodes D3 and
D4 are reverse biased and the current,
hence do not conduct
The Bridge Rectifier
During the positive half cycle

D4

D3
The Bridge Rectifier
Mode of operation

• During the negative half cycle of the

supply, the negative terminal of the supply
becomes positive relative the positive
terminal. diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, as they are forward biased. but
diodes D1 and D2 do not conduct as they
are now reversed biased. The current
flowing through the load therefore has
the same polarity and direction as before.
The Bridge Rectifier
During the positive half cycle

D1

D2
Advantages of the bridge
rectifier
1. The need for centre-taped transformer is eliminated.
2. The output is twice when compared to centre-tapped
full wave rectifier.
3. The peak inverse voltage is one-half (1/2) compared
to centre-tapped full wave rectifier.
4. Can be used where large amount of power is required.
 Disadvantages of the bridge
rectifier
• 1. It requires four diodes.
• 2. The use of two extra diodes cause an additional voltage
drop thereby reducing the overall output voltage.
Efficiency of a Full-Wave Rectifier
• Idc = 2 Im = 2 Vm
π π RL

• Irms = Im = 0.707 Im
√2
• Rectifier Efficiency, η = Pdc
Pac

• = I²dcRL
I²rms (rf + RL)

• = 0.812
[1+ (rf / RL)]

• = 81.2% if the diode resistance rf is negligible as compare to RL.

• The efficiency of the center tap full-wave rectifier is twice the value of the half-wave
Filters
• The output of the rectifier is known to be pulsating
which means that, the output obtained by the
rectifier is not pure because it contains some AC
components called ripples which appears along with
the DC output.

• These ripples are unwanted and needs to be

minimised. Filter circuits are normally used to
achieve this purpose. These circuits are usually
connected between the rectifier and load but is
always connected in parallel to the load.
Types of Filters

• Capacitor Filter (C-Filter)

• Inductor Filter
• Choke Input Filter (LC-Filter)
• Capacitor Input Filter (𝞹 -Filter)
Capacitor Filter [C-Filter]
Half-Wave Rectifier with a
smoothing capacitor
• To smooth the output of the rectifier a
reservoir capacitor is placed across the
output of the rectifier and in parallel with
the load. This capacitor charges up when
the voltage from the rectifier rises above
that of the capacitor and then as the
rectifier voltage falls, the capacitor
provides the required current from its
stored charges.
Capacitor Filter [C-Filter]
Half-Wave Rectifier with a
smoothing capacitor
Capacitor Filter [C-Filter]
Full-Wave Rectifier with a
smoothing capacitor
Capacitor Filter [C-Filter]

• Two important parameters to consider when

choosing a suitable a capacitor are;

1. its working voltage, which must be higher

than the no-load output value of the
rectifier
2. The value of the capacitance
Capacitor Filter [C-Filter]

• Capacitance value = Time constant = RC

Ripple voltage Vr

The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined

by the value of capacitance [C] and the value of the
load resistance [R]. If the capacitance and load
resistance values are large, the RC discharge time for
the circuit is relatively long.
 Capacitor filter [smoothing
capacitor]
• The smoothing of the output waveform can be
improved by adding a much improved π-filter
(pi-filter) to the output terminals of the bridge
rectifier. This type of filter consists of two
smoothing capacitors, usually of the same
value and a choke or inductance across them to
introduce a high impedance path to the
alternating ripple component.
Capacitor filter [smoothing
capacitor]
• The ripple factor for a Half-wave rectifier with C-filer is given by
r= 1 √[3fcRL]
2

The ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier with C-filter is given by

r= 1 √ [3fcRL]
4
Zener Diodes
Zener Diodes

• A Zener diode behaves like a normal diode

when it is forward biased. However, when
reversed biased, the Zener will start to
conduct current once a specified voltage
(Zener Voltage, Vz) is exceeded, but the
voltage across the diode will not change
significantly. The constancy of the reverse
voltage is the reason why the device is useful
in many appliction,
Zener Diodes
Voltage Regulation

• the output from the

voltage source, is
connected across the
combination of the zener
diode and the limiting
resistor R.
• The resistor R is
connected in series with
the zener diode to limit
the current flow into the
diode.
• The stabilised output
voltage Vz is taken from
 Voltage Regulation
• The Zener diode is connected
such that, the cathode is
connected to the positive line
of the DC supply so it is reverse
biased and will be operating in
its breakdown condition.
• When no load resistance, RL is
connected to the circuit, no
load current (IL ), is drawn and
all the circuit current passes
through the zener diode which
gives out maximum power
Voltage Regulation

• It must be noted that, there is a minimum

Zener current for which the stabilization of
the voltage is effective and the Zener current
must stay above this value in other for the
diode to operate within this breakdown
region at all times.
• The upper limit of current is of course
dependant upon the power rating of the
device.
Example 1

• A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required from a 12V d.c

input. The maximum power rating of the zener diode is 2W.
Using the circuits above calculate:
(a) The maximum current flowing in the zener diode
(b) The value of the series resistor R
(c) The load current if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected
across the zener diode
(d) (d)The total supply current IS
Example 2

• (a)In the circuit below the 10V zener diode can maintain regulation
over a range of current values from to . Calculate the range of input
voltage for which the diode can maintain the regulated output
Example 3

Determine the range of V for obtaining a

regulated voltage shown in Figure below for
the data 0 ≤ IL ≤ 4 mA, 2 ≤ IZ ≤ 8 mA.
Example 4
Calculate the current through the zener diode for the
given values of load resistance in this circuit:
(a) R load = 1.5 kΩ ; I zener =?
(b) (b) R load = 1 kΩ ; I zener =
(c) R load = 910 Ω ; I zener =?
(e) R load = 780 Ω ; I zener =
Example 5
Calculate the current through the zener diode for
the given values of load resistance in this circuit:
(i) R load = 1 kΩ ; I zener =? (ii) R load = 910 Ω ; I
zener =? (iii) R load = 680 Ω ; I zener =? (iv) R load
= 470 Ω ; I zener =? (v) R load = 330 Ω ; I zener =?
IC voltage regulator

• An integrated circuit regulator is a device that is

connected to the output of a filtered rectifier and
maintains a constant output voltage despite
changes in the in the input.

• While filters can reduce the ripple from power

supplies to a low value, the most effective filter is a
combination of a capacitor input filter used with an
IC voltage regulator. Popular IC regulators have
three terminals: an input, an output and a reference
terminal or ground.
IC voltage regulator
• 3 terminal regulators designed for a fixed output
voltage require only external capacitors to complete
the regulation portion of the power supply as
shown in the figure. Example an IC regulators are
the 78xx series.
IC voltage regulator
Other uses of Diodes

Light Emitting Diodes[LEDs]

•Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that

fit easily into an electrical circuit.
• Unlike ordinary incandescent bulbs, they
don't have a filament that will burn out,
and they don't get hot.
•They are illuminated solely by the
movement of electrons in a
semiconductor material, and they last very
long.
LEDs cont’d

• Light is a form of energy that can be released

by an atom. It is made up of many small
particle-like packets that have energy and
momentum but no mass. These particles,
called photons, are the most basic units of
light.
LEDs cont’d

•free electrons moving across a diode can

fall into empty holes from the P-type
layer. This involves a drop from the
conduction band to a lower orbital, so
the electrons release energy in the form
of light called photons. This happens in
any diode, but you can only see the
photons when the diode is composed of
certain material.
LEDs cont’d

• The atoms in a standard silicon diode, for

example, are arranged in such a way that the
electron drops a relatively short distance.

• As a result, the photon's frequency is so low

that it is invisible to the human eye -- it is in
the infrared portion of the light spectrum.
Infrared LEDs are ideal for remote controls.
EM/ Light Spectrum
LEDs cont’d

• LED used to be very expensive but modern

technology has made them very simple cheap
hence its wide application lately