Module
Module 3:
3: Working
Working with
with Diverse
Diverse Others
Others
Defining
Defining and
and Classifying
Classifying Groups
Groups
Group:
– Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who
have come together to achieve particular objectives
Formal Group:
– Defined by the organization’s structure with designated work
assignments establishing tasks
Informal Group:
– Alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined
– Appear naturally in response to the need for social contact
– Deeply affect behavior and performance
Subclassifications
Subclassifications of
of Groups
Groups
Formal Groups Informal Groups
Command Group Interest Group
– A group composed of the – Members work together to
individuals who report attain a specific objective with
directly to a given manager which each is concerned
Task Group Friendship Group
– Those working together to – Those brought together
complete a job or task in an because they share one or
organization but not limited more common characteristics
by hierarchical boundaries
Why
Why People
People Join
Join Groups
Groups –– Social
Social Identity
Identity
Similarity
Distinctiveness
Status
Uncertainty Reduction
Five
Five Stages
Stages of
of Group
Group Development
Development Model:
Model:
Bruce
Bruce W.
W. Tuckman
Tuckman
E X H I B I T 9-1
E X H I B I T 9-1
The
The Five
Five Stages
Stages of
of Group
Group Development
Development
1. Forming
– Members feel much uncertainty
2. Storming
– Lots of conflict between members of the group
3. Norming
– Members have developed close relationships and
cohesiveness
4. Performing
– The group is finally fully functional
5. Adjourning
– In temporary groups, characterized by concern with
wrapping up activities rather than performance
Critique
Critique of
of the
the Five-Stage
Five-Stage Model
Model
Assumption: the group becomes more effective as it
progresses through the first four stages
– Not always true – group behavior is more complex
– High levels of conflict may be conducive to high
performance
– Several stages may occur simultaneously
Ignores the organizational context
Group
Group Properties
Properties
Group
Group Property
Property 1:
1: Roles
Roles
Role
– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone
occupying a given position in a social unit
Role Perception
– An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given
situation
Role Expectations
– How others believe a person should act in a given situation
– Psychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out
mutual expectations of management and employees
Role Conflict
– A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations
9-9
Group
Group Property
Property 2:
2: Norms
Norms
Norms
– Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are
shared by the group’s members
Classes of Norms
– Performance norms - level of acceptable work
– Appearance norms - what to wear
– Social arrangement norms - friendships and the like
– Allocation of resources norms - distribution and assignments
of jobs and material
9-10
Group
Group Norms
Norms and
and the
the Hawthorne
Hawthorne Studies
Studies
A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western
Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924
and 1932
Research Conclusions
– Worker behavior and sentiments were closely related
– Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting
individual behavior
– Group standards (norms) were highly effective in
establishing individual worker output
– Money was less a factor in determining worker output than
were group standards, sentiments, and security
9-11
Group
Group Property
Property 3:
3: Status
Status
Status
– A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group
members by others – it differentiates group members
– Important factor in understanding behavior
– Significant motivator
Status Characteristics Theory
– Status derived from one of three sources:
• Power a person has over others
• Ability to contribute to group goals
• Personal characteristics
9-12
Group
Group Property
Property 4:
4: Size
Size
Size
– Twelve or more members is a “large” group
– Seven or fewer is a “small” group
Group size affects behavior
Best group sizes based on requirement:
Attribute Small Large
Speed X
Individual Performance X
Problem Solving X
Diverse Input X
Fact-finding Goals X
Overall Performance X
9-13
Issues
Issues with
with Group
Group Size
Size
Social Loafing
– The tendency for individuals to make less effort when
working collectively than when working individually
– Caused by either equity concerns or a diffusion of
responsibility (free riders)
Managerial Implications
– Build in individual accountability
– Prevent social loafing by:
• Setting group goals
• Increasing intergroup competition
• Using peer evaluation
• Distributing group rewards based on individual effort
9-14
Group
Group Property
Property 5:
5: Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness
− Degree to which group members are attracted to each
other and are motivated to stay in the group
Managerial Implication
– To increase cohesiveness:
• Make the group smaller.
• Encourage agreement with group goals.
• Increase time members spend together.
• Increase group status and admission difficulty.
• Stimulate competition with other groups.
• Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
• Physically isolate the group.
9-15
Work Team
A work team generates positive synergy through
coordinated effort.
Their individual efforts result in a level of
performance that is greater than the sum of
individual inputs.
Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams
Work Groups Work Teams
Share information Goal Collective performance
Neutral (may be negative) Synergy Positive
Individual Accountability Individual and mutual
Random and varied Skills Complementary
Types of Teams
Problem-Solving Teams
Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same
department who meet for a few hours each week to
discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and
the work environment.
OR
A temporary combination of workers who gather
to solve a specific problem and then disband.
Self- Managed Work Teams
– Small groups who are empowered to make the
decisions needed to manage themselves on a daily
basis.
– Teams make decisions on:
• Scheduling work.
• Allocating tasks.
• Training in job skills.
• Evaluating performance.
• Selecting new team members.
• Controlling quality of work.
Cross- Functional Teams
– Consist of members from about the same hierarchical
level, but representing different functional
departments or work units, who work together to
accomplish a task.
– Used to solve problems with a positive combination of
functional expertise and integrative systems thinking.
Virtual Teams
Teams that use computer technology to tie together
physically dispersed members in order to achieve a
common goal.
The three factors that differentiate virtual teams from
face- to- face teams are
Limited social context
The ability to overcome time and space constraints.