ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

Cost Efficient Construction(CoTM5281)

CHAPTER 3
Materials (Cost Efficient)

Prepared by: MULISA A.

May, 2021
Content of Chapters
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Alternative Construction Materials
3.3. Prefabrication
3.4. Standardization and Mechanization
3.5. Low cost labor technologies
3.6. Wastage
3. Material
3.1. Introduction
While awareness about the critical need for more affordable housing has grown, the
solutions have not. Building materials accounts for nearly 60 to 65% of the cost of
house construction. With the constant rise in the cost of traditional building materials
and with the poor affordability of large segments of our population the cost of an
adequate house is increasingly going beyond the affordable limits of more than 30-
35% of our population lying in the lower income segments.
This calls for wide spread technology dissemination and availability at
decentralized locations of cost-effective building materials and construction
techniques.
The five leading modern construction materials are cement, concrete, steel,
bricks and wood.
In the industrialized world, these have been used to build more comfortable
housing than ever before. This has contributed to changing living patterns of the
middle class, but not for the poor.
Steel and cement are symbols of wealth and power - but many people cannot
afford them.
Low cost building materials do not mean sub-standard materials, but the
materials available/developed locally, cutting the transportation charges and
manufactured applying civil engineering know-how for better service and economy.
In general, the various building materials available various building materials
available can be divided into two, these are:
I. Traditional materials
These materials serve the basic needs of the majority of the population. These have
very useful properties; however, there is a scope to modify these through
appropriate changes in the process of production as well as in the techniques of
application, so that these are made structurally and functionally acceptable.
Example: mud, stone, bamboo, wood, farm product, etc.
II. Conventional materials
The conventional materials are those, which have been obtained by using the
modern technologies and can be mentioned as fruit of research and adopted to
indigenous requirements. Example: Cement, Steel, HCB, Concrete structure, Glass,
Aluminum panels, Brick, Wooden product panels, etc.
The common building practices in our country are grouped in to two, these are;
A. Traditional Techniques:
 Mud building techniques
 Stone building techniques
 Wooden, Mud-wood composite buildings
 Bamboo buildings
 Farm By-products for construction
B. “Modern” Techniques (up to industrial level):
 Concrete structures
 HCB wall and flooring techniques
 Corrugated Iron Sheeting
 Steel Structures
 Glass and aluminum panels
 Wooden structures and panels, etc
The parameters for comparison Alternative material and techniques

• Fulfillment of basic quality standard ( EQSA):

 Durability against external impact
 Resistance to weathering
 Resistance against fire and corrosive chemicals
 Resistance to pest and fungal attack
• Specific Performance quality:
 Structural capacity- load bearing under different requirements (and localities)
 Thermal and Acoustic performance
 Ease of construction
• Local conditions
 Availability of material and proximity to the construction site
 Environmental impact and recyclability & sustainability
 Cost
3.2. Alternative Construction Materials
3.2.1 Mud
During post earthquake reconstruction, mud houses are most effective since they
are environmental friendly, cool in summer and warm in winter.
Mud is only a material available everywhere in abundance free of cost and is
being used as building material from centuries. But such types of houses are
temporary in nature, prone to erosion by heavy rains. The disadvantages of mud
can be overcome by suitable improvement in design and construction techniques.
The strength of mud is improved by adding cement, lime, bitumen or fibers and it
also becomes resistant to water, its main enemy. Cement stabilized mud blocks,
using 3 to 10% cement by weight molded in mechanical machines are better than
adobe mud bricks.
3.2.2 Cement and Concrete Substitutes
With one cubic meter produced per year per capita, concrete is the most widely
used material in the world and accounts for 5‐8% of man‐made CO2 emissions.
It is possible to reduce its environmental impact by substituting cement with
supplementary cementiteous materials (SCM’s) like fly ash, slag, silica fume and
natural pozzolana.
3.2.3 Wood/Timber Substitutes
 Continuing dependence on conventional building materials like burnt clay bricks, cement,
steel and primary timbers from natural forests is neither possible nor desirable without
detriment to environment. Though their application in field has yet to achieve the desired
level, however, it is simple demonstrated that by their increasing application it is possible
to conserve non-renewable materials, reduce pollution and achieve substantial savings in
energy consumption.
3.2.4 Alternative Walling Materials Alternative Walling Materials
The materials used for walling for instance can consist of:
• Mud
• Sun-dried bricks
• Rammed earth
• Stabilized soil blocks
• Kiln-burnt bricks
• Timber/bamboo
• Stone block masonry
• Precast/factory-made walling units using light weight cellular concrete
• Concrete hollow blocks
• Ferro-cement
3.2.5 Alternative Roofing Materials
 Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) roofing slabs are predominantly used in many housing
projects more in the urban context. However, the use of the many economic alternatives can play
a major role in large housing projects.
The various alternative systems that can be used are:
• Clay/micro-concrete tiled roofing with insulation over timber/ferro-cement rafters
• Stone roofing with distributors
• Corrugated sheet: asbestos, galvanized iron (GI)
• Prefabricated brick panel
• ‘L’ panel roofing
• Filler slab roofing with various filler material
• Clay tile - RCC batten roof
• Pre-cast cellular concrete roofing unit
• RCC channel units
• Pre-cast joist and hollow block construction
• Pre-cast RCC solid planks/joists
• Funicular shells over edge beams
• Pre-cast plate floors
• Ferro-cement roofing elements
• Filler slab roofing with various filler material
3.2.6 Doors and Windows
Timber is used for door and window frames and shutters and also for structural and
non-structural walling and roofing units.
With a view to effect the economic use of timber and conserve the primary species
of timber, use of secondary species of timber has resorted to by giving appropriate
seasoning and chemical treatment before use.
However, time has come to look for alternatives to timber. The use of steel shaped
frames as well as pre-cast concrete and magnesium ox chloride cement door and
window frames is becoming increasingly popular.
3.2.7 Inter-locking Blocks
The construction industry is acknowledging the strong need to accelerate the
masonry construction process, as the conventional method is labor intensive,
hence, slower due to the presence of a large number of mortar joints.
There is need for further acceleration of the rate of construction leading to the
elimination of bedding mortar and thereby to the development non-conventional
methods of masonry construction techniques, one that adopted special interlocking
blocks as well as conventional blocks.
Advantages of Interlocking Blocks/Bricks
Deductions from a laboratory study on masonry works carried out reveals the
following conclusions applicable to the methodology adopted and the range of
parameters investigated:
1. Interlocking blocks masonry has much higher output per productive hour compared to
conventional – brick/hollow – block masonry
2. Due to easier alignment facilitated by the interlocking features and the elimination of
vertical joints, a production enhancement of 80 - 120% and 60 – 90% more than
conventional masonry was observed for dry-stacked masonry and thin-jointed, mortar
bedded interlocking-block masonry respectively. Compared to conventional masonry,
the interlocking-block has less indirect contributory work- the reduction ranging from
30 -50%.
3.2.8 Concrete Block
The three methods of concrete block making considered are summarized below.
Option 1 - Automated mass production
This is a capital intensive manufacture, low labor option, based on modern high
speed concrete block manufacturing equipment. Being one of the smallest
commercially available automated plants, it represents the option requiring the least
capital input of the truly automated plants. It requires a reliable electricity supply,
access to gas or oil supplies.
Option 2 - Mechanically assisted manual production
This is labor intensive multiple-unit manufacture assisted by "low technology-low
capital investment" equipment which has been designed to reduce the manufacturing
costs. This option requires minimum capital input. It does not require an electricity
supply or access to gas or oil supplies.
Option 3 - Manual single concrete block mould
This is labor intensive manufacture, based on manually mixing bagged cement and
locally quarried sand and aggregate. Typically the mix will be prepared in a tub and
poured into a steel or aluminium mould, perhaps several at a time, and allowed to
cure overnight before being stripped from the mould.
3.2.9 Bamboo (Vegetable Steel)
For housing radical new ideas are needed. For example, one of the best structural
materials available in abundance is bamboo.
There are many advantages to using bamboo in construction. It is a highly
functional, beautiful, earthquake-indifferent material. Bamboo occurs in many
sizes, many degrees of hardness, and many grades of color and occupies a wide
range of habitats. It is possible to build multiple storey buildings with bamboo.
Whereas trees must be replanted when they are harvested, bamboo roots sprout up
again quickly.
Bamboo as a versatile material and its various composites along with other
building materials offer a very appropriate option to partially replace materials like
steel, aluminum and hard forest wood for housing applications.
Uses of bamboo in buildings:
• Door shutters
• Flooring
• Shuttering and Scaffolding
• Roofing sheets
3.3. Prefabrication
Pre-cast concrete door and window frames have developed which are economical
compared to timber frames besides being resistant to decay and ant attack. Several low
cost pre-cast roofing units such as doubly curved tiles, pre-cast cellular units, cored
concrete, etc., have been developed and successfully used in buildings.
The concept of pre-cast construction includes those buildings where the majority of
structural components are standardized and produced in plants in a location away from
the building, and then transported to the site for assembly. These components are
manufactured by industrial methods based on mass production in order to build a large
number of buildings in a short time at low cost.
The main features of this construction process are as follows:
 The division and specialization of the human workforce
 The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually automated,
in the production of standard, interchangeable parts and products.
In general, pre-cast building systems are more economical when
compared to conventional multifamily residential construction
(apartment buildings) in many countries. Depending on the load-bearing
structure, pre-cast systems can be divided into the following categories:

• Large-panel systems
• Frame systems
• Slab-column systems with walls
• Mixed systems
3.3.1 Large Panel Systems
The designation “large-panel system” refers to multistory structures composed of
large wall and floor concrete panels connected in the vertical and horizontal
directions so that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the rooms within a
building. These panels form a box-like structure (see Figure 3). Both vertical and
horizontal panels resist gravity load. Wall panels are usually one story high.
Horizontal floor and roof panel spans are either as one-way or two way slabs.
When properly joined together, these horizontal elements act as diaphragms that
transfer the lateral loads to the walls.
3.3.2 Frame Systems
 Pre-cast frames can be constructed using either linear elements or spatial beam column sub
assemblages.
 Precast beam-column sub-assemblages have the advantage that the connecting faces between the
sub-assemblages can be placed away from the critical frame regions; however, linear elements are
generally preferred because of the difficulties associated with forming, handling, and erecting
spatial elements.
 The use of linear elements generally means placing the connecting faces at the beam-column
junctions. The beams can be seated on corbels at the columns, for ease of construction.
3.3.3 Slab Column Systems with Shear Walls
These systems rely on shear walls to sustain lateral load effects, whereas the slab
column structure resists mainly gravity loads. There are two main systems in this
category:
• Lift-slab system with walls
• Pre-stressed slab-column system
The load-bearing structure consists of pre-cast reinforced concrete columns and
slab. Pre-cast columns are usually two stories high. All pre-cast structural elements
are assembled by means of special joints. Reinforced concrete slabs are poured on
the ground in forms, one on top of the other. Pre-cast concrete floor slabs are lifted
from the ground up to the final height by lifting cranes.
The slab panels are lifted to the top of the column and then moved downwards to
the final position. Temporary supports are used to keep the slabs in the position
until the connection with the columns has been achieved.
N.B: Other Elements Other Elements
The scope for the use of pre-cast elements is coming into sharp focus for areas of
application such as:
• Thin pre-cast lintels
• Thin ferro-cement pre-cast shelves
• Pre-cast sanitation unit rings
• Pre-cast septic tanks
• Ferro-cement bio-gas units
• Pre-cast jalousies
• Pre-cast poles for street lighting
• Pre-cast posts for boundary walls
• Ferro-cement based sanitation units/cladding
• Ferro-cement water tanks
• Pre-cast well rings for water wells
3.4. Standardization and Mechanization
In high-income countries, building products manufactured locally by automated
processes can be distributed cheaper than their manually manufactured
competitors.
In low-income and middle-income countries, building products manufactured
locally by automated processes can be distributed cheaper than their manually
manufactured competitors only if the market is predictable and sufficiently large
enough to provide a reasonable return on the capital invested.
Otherwise, manually produced products will hold a competitive edge.
In the short term, manual production and mechanically assisted manual
production provide more opportunities for local employment than automated
production.
There are two direct approaches towards cost reduction in brick production, viz.
mechanization of the brick making process and improvement of the efficiency of
brick kilns.
3.5. Low cost labor technologies
Work force in construction project would include professional, skilled, semi
skilled and unskilled laborers.
Target: to do jobs in a lesser time (lesser direct cost) => lesser construction cost
=> building with a lesser cost.
Low-income housing developments in the formal sector tend to be in the middle
range of benefit for development, and high-income housing is the least favorable.
A study in Mexico suggests that the cheaper the conventional housing, the greater
is the proportion of total construction cost that goes to labor. A more elaborate
study of low-income housing in Kenya also confirms that less expensive forms of
housing generate more employment.
Therefore, self-help or low-income housing which tends to be built by the
informal sector with its greater labor-intensity, use of indigenous techniques,
unskilled labor, and small firms should be encouraged.
Building low-cost housing can be very beneficial in employment and income for
the local area. If materials are won or made locally, the direct employment can be
augmented by local jobs in materials industries. Also, the profits and income
multipliers from local industries benefit the local people.
Techniques towards efficient manpower management:
 Avoid variability of items of works (Repetitiveness)
 Use of readily/locally available workforce
 One approach, engineering wise, to developing a viable solution is to focus on
building modules that are lightweight, simple to assemble, and require
minimum skilled labor.
 The use of unskilled and the unemployed: There is often an abundance of
unemployed building workers in informal settlements; building workers with
the lowest levels of building skills. Skilled building artisans are in short supply
throughout the world. However, building technology has also in some respects
advanced beyond traditional building techniques so that a high level of training
is not always necessary. Some of this does not need heavy manual labor so that
the erection of housing no longer needs to be gender specific. Whatever extra
skills are needed can be obtained while building.
 Manuals and guidelines
3.6. Wastage
Waste can be defined as any losses produced by activities that
generate direct or indirect costs but do not add any value to the product
from the point of view of the client.
Objective: Minimize wastage (minimize labor and material cost
indirectly) => minimize expense => cost effective building
Techniques:
• Modular building materials
• Pre-cast concrete
• Building materials with various shapes and geometry
• Dimensioning spaces taking into account the available standard
building materials and the overall building project
 THANK YOU

04/15/2025 30