Life-Span Human

Development, 10e
Chapter 3: Prenatal
Development and Birth

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 Icebreaker

1. The class will be broken up into pairs of students.

2. Each pair of students will share one story from their childhood in terms
of a happy experience they had with their caregiver.

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 Learning Objectives (1 of 3)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• 3.1 Describe techniques that may assist with conception.
• 3.2 Summarize the main events for each of the three phases of the
prenatal period.
• 3.3 Describe the three major processes of brain development during the
prenatal period.
• 3.4 Discuss the concept of fetal programming and evaluate its
usefulness in understanding connections between prenatal events and
postnatal outcomes.
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 Learning Objectives (2 of 3)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• 3.5 Describe at least two teratogens that can lead to serious
developmental defects and two that can lead to mild or moderate
defects.
• 3.6 Summarize characteristics of the parents-to-be that may influence
pregnancy and its outcomes.
• 3.7 Describe the effects of various interventions during delivery on
neonatal outcomes.

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 Learning Objectives (3 of 3)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• 3.8 Compare cultural practices surrounding labor, delivery, and neonatal
life and predict how these differences might affect later child
development.
• 3.9 Describe two methods that might be used to identify the likelihood of
risk for the newborn.
• 3.10 Explain how we can optimize the development of at-risk newborns.

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3.1 Prenatal Development

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 Knowledge Check 1

When does development start?

A. At birth
B. During the second trimester
C. At conception
D. At the end of the first trimester

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 Knowledge Check 1: Answer

When does development start?

Answer: C. At conception
Conception occurs when the genetic material of the sperm and egg
unite to form a single-celled zygote.

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 Conception (1 of 3)

• Conception occurs when the genetic material of the sperm and egg
unite to form a single-celled zygote.
• One in four couples experience difficulties conceiving.
• Infertility:
− Not being able to get pregnant after a year of trying
− Stems from a variety of causes
− Equally attributed to men and women

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 Conception (2 of 3)

• Varicocele: A condition affecting

men in which enlarged veins on
their testicles raise the
temperature in the testes,
interfering with sperm production
• Endometriosis: A condition
affecting women arising when bits
of tissue lining the uterus grow
outside of the uterus

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 Conception (3 of 3)

• Artificial insemination:
− Also called intrauterine insemination
− Involves injecting sperm into the uterus

• In vitro fertilization:
− Several eggs are removed from a woman’s ovary and manually combined
with sperm in a laboratory.
− Returned to uterus in hopes that one egg will implant

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 Prenatal Stages (1 of 8)

• Embryologists • Germinal period:

− Study early; growth and − First trimester begins with this
development period.
− Divide prenatal development into − Lasts approximately 2 weeks
three stages or periods: − Zygote divides many times
 Germinal period through mitosis, forming the
 Embryonic period blastocyst.
  Hollow ball of about 150 cells
Fetal period
that is the size of the head of
a pin

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 Prenatal Stages (2 of 8)

Day Event
1 Fertilization usually occurs within 24 hours of ovulation.
2 The single-celled zygote begins to divide 24–36 hours after
fertilization.
3 The mass has 12–16 calls and is called a morula; it is traveling
down the fallopian tube to the fetus.
4–5 An inner cell mass forms; the entire mass is called a blastocyst
and is the size of a pinhead.
6–7 The blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus.
8–14 During the second week, the blastocyst becomes fully
embedded in the wall of the uterus. It now has about 250 cells.

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 Prenatal Stages (3 of 8)

Embryonic period: Chorion:

• Occurs from the third to the eighth • Membrane that surrounds the
week after conception amnion
Organogenesis: • Attaches rootlike extensions
• called villi to the uterine lining to
Time period when every major organ
gather nourishment for the
takes shape
embryo
Amnion:
Placenta:
• Watertight membrane that fills with
• Tissue fed by blood vessels from
fluid that cushions and protects the
the mother and connected to the
embryo
embryo by the umbilical cord
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 Prenatal Stages (3 of 8)
Week Event
3 Now an embryo, the person-to-be is just 1/10 of an inch (2 mm) long. It has become
elongated, and three layers emerge—the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
4 The embryo is so curved that the two ends almost touch. The outer layer (ectoderm)
folds into the neural tube. From the mesoderm, a tiny heart forms and begins to beat.
The endoderm differentiates into a gastrointestinal tract and lungs. Between days 21
and 28, eyes develop.
5 Ears, mouth, and throat take shape. Arm and leg buds appear. The handplate, from
which fingers will emerge, appears. The heart divides into two regions, and the brain
differentiates into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
6–7 The embryo is almost 1 inch long. The heart divides into four chambers. Fingers
emerge from the handplate, and primitive facial features are evident. The important
process of sexual differentiation begins.
8 Most structures and organs are present. Ovaries and testes are evident. The embryo
begins to straighten and assumes a more human appearance.

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 Prenatal Stages (4 of 8)

Beginnings of the brain form at 3–4 weeks.

Neural plate folds up to form the neural tube.

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 Prenatal Stages (5 of 8)

• In a small number of pregnancies, • Sex differentiation begins

neural tube fails to fully close: during the seventh and eighth
− Spina bifida: prenatal weeks.
 Part of the spinal cord is not fully • Testes of a male embryo
encased in the protective covering secrete testosterone:
of the spinal column.
− The primary male sex
− Anencephaly: hormone that stimulates the
 Failure to close at the top of the development of a male
neural tube internal reproductive system
 Fatal, as main portion of brain
does not develop
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 Prenatal Stages (6 of 8)

• Fetal period:
− Lasts from the ninth week of pregnancy until birth
− Encompasses part of the first trimester and all of the middle and last
trimesters
− Critical period for three processes of brain development
 Proliferation, migration, and differentiation

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 Table 3.4 Events of the Fetal Period

Week Event
9 Bone tissue emerges, and the embryo becomes a fetus. The head of the fetus takes up about half of the
total length of the fetus. The fetus can open and close its mouth and turn its head.
10–12 Fingers and toes are formed. External genitalia have developed. Movements have increased and the fetus
shows breathing movements with its chest and some reflexes.
13–16 The heartbeat should be audible with a stethoscope. Fetal movements may become apparent to the
mother. The fetus is about 4.5 inches long and the skeleton is becoming harder.
17–22 Fingernails, toenails, hair, teeth buds, and eyelashes grow. Brain development is phenomenal, and
brainwaves are detectable.
23–25 This is the age of viability. The fetus is about 12 inches long and weighs about 1 pound.
26–32 The fetus gains weight and the brain grows. The nervous system becomes better organized.
33–38 There is further weight gain and brain activity. The lungs mature and begin to expand and contract.

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 Prenatal Stages (7 of 8)

• Age of viability:
− When survival outside the uterus is possible if the brain and respiratory
system are sufficiently developed
− Approximately 23 weeks after conception is possible for survival
− At week 25, the survival rate without impairment is above 50%

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 Prenatal Stages (8 of 8)

• During the second half of • Heart rate activity and

pregnancy: movement become organized
− Neurons proliferate as infant states:
− Neurons increase in size − Under 32 weeks: quiet and
active states
− Neurons develop myelin
− 32–35 weeks: active sleep
 Myelin is an insulating cover for
the neuron. • Fetus moves to the fetal
position in preparation of
birth.

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 Knowledge Check 2

During which stage of prenatal development do the eyes, ears, nose, and
mouth take shape?
A. The germinal period
B. The embryonic period
C. The fetal period
D. The infant period

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 Knowledge Check 2: Answer

During which stage of prenatal development do the eyes, ears, nose, and
mouth take shape?
Answer: B. The embryonic period
The eyes, ears, nose, and mouth rapidly take shape in the second
month, and buds appear that will become arms and legs. All of this
happens during the embryonic period.

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3.2 The Prenatal Environment and
Fetal Programming

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 Poll 1

Can pregnant women consume alcohol during pregnancy?

A) Yes, but only during the first trimester of pregnancy.
B) Yes, but they can only consumer one alcoholic beverage per day.
C) No, pregnant women cannot consume any alcohol during pregnancy.
D) I can’t decide. The research seems mixed.

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The Prenatal Environment and Fetal Programming

• Fetal programming:
− Environmental events during
pregnancy may alter the
expected genetic unfolding of the
embryo/fetus.

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 Teratogens (1 of 10)

• Teratogen:
− Any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a
developing fetus
 Effects are worse during the critical period
 The greater and longer exposure, the more likely serious damage will occur.
 Susceptibility to harm influenced by genetic makeup
 Effects depend on the quality of the prenatal and postnatal environments.

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 Teratogens (2 of 10)

• The effects of teratogens

depend on:
− Critical period
− Dosage and duration
− Genetic makeup
− Environment

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 Teratogens (3 of 10)

• Thalidomide:
− Used to relieve morning sickness in 1950s
− It later became clear that there are critical periods for different deformities
caused by thalidomide.
 If mother had taken thalidomide 20–22 days, the baby was born without ears.
 At 22–27 days after conception, the baby often had missing or small thumbs.
 At 27 and 33 days, baby was likely to have stunted legs.
 At 35 or 36 days after conception, baby was not affected.

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 Teratogens (4 of 10)

• Tobacco:
− Effects of smoking during pregnancy are varied and may include:
 Increased risk of miscarriage
 Prematurity, growth retardation, and small size
 Respiratory problems
 Cleft lips and cleft palates
 Problems with attention and impulsivity
 Problems with delinquent behavior and substance abuse
 Raises risk of SIDS

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 Teratogens (5 of 10)

• Alcohol:
− Crosses the placenta
− Disrupts the normal process of neuronal migration
− Can lead to neuronal death
− Fetal alcohol syndrome
 Noticeable physical symptoms (small head, thin upper lip, short nose, flat
midface); signs of CNS damage; lower than average IQ

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 Teratogens (6 of 10)

• Illicit Drugs: − Opioids:

− Cocaine:  Smaller babies and early
delivery
 Can cause spontaneous abortion
 Increased risk of cesarean
in first trimester
section delivery and
 Premature detachment of placenta respiratory support
and fetal strokes later in
 Neonatal Abstinence
pregnancy
Syndrome (NAS):
 Contributes to fetal withdrawal from the drug
malnourishment, retarded growth,
and low birth weight

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 Teratogens (7 of 10)

• Rubella (German measles): • Maternal diabetes:

− Most dangerous during first − Risk of premature delivery
trimester
− Stillbirth or miscarriage
 Birth defects occur in 60–85% of
babies whose mothers had − Immature lung development
disease in first 2 months of
− Large fetal size
pregnancy.
− Blindness
− Deafness
− Heart defects
− Intellectual disability

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 Teratogens (8 of 10)

• Sexually transmitted infections: • Syphilis:

− AIDS − Can cause miscarriage or
 Can be transmitted to babies stillbirth in approximately
25% of cases
 Prenatally: virus passes through
the placenta − Blindness
 Perinatally: blood exchanged − Intellectual disability
between mother and baby
 Postnatally: virus transmitted
during breastfeeding

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 Teratogens (9 of 10)

• Radiation:
− Higher-than-normal rate of intellectual disability, greater incidence of
leukemia and cancers
• Pollutants:
− Lower birth weight
− Preterm birth
− Impaired intellectual functioning

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 Teratogens (10 of 10)

Maternal age is a factor related to fetal death.

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Figure 3.7 Mortality Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin
of Mother During the Fetal and Perinatal Periods

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 Maternal Factors (1 of 2)

• Malnutrition:
− First trimester disruption of formation of spinal cord, fewer brain cells, and
stillbirth
− Third trimester smaller neurons, smaller brain, and smaller child

• Maternal obesity:
− Offspring obesity and diabetes

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 Maternal Factors (2 of 2)

• Prolonged and severe emotional stress and anxiety during pregnancy:

− Faster and more irregular heart rate
− Stunted prenatal growth
 Lower birth weight
 Premature birth
 Birth complications
− Following birth
 Smaller, more irritable, more prone to crying

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 Paternal Factors

• Paternal Factors
• Older paternal age:
− Odds of miscarriage are higher
− Elevated risk of congenital heart defects, neural tube defects, and kidney
problems
− Odds of Down syndrome higher
− Risk factor for schizophrenia

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 Discussion

Do you think that people who expose an unborn child to substances—

alcohol ingestion, first or secondhand smoke, and so on—should be
charged with child endangerment?

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3.3 The Perinatal Environment

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 The Perinatal Environment

• Perinatal environment: environment surrounding birth

• Perinatologist: a maternal–fetal specialist who focuses on high-risk
pregnancies
• In 1930 8 out of 10 births took place at home
• Now 2% of births take place in the home

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 Childbirth

• Childbirth is a three-stage
process:
− First stage of labor: Mother
experiences regular contractions.
 Oxytocin: speeds up
contractions
− Second stage of labor: delivery
− Third stage of labor: delivery of
the placenta

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 Possible Hazards

• Anoxia:
− Oxygen shortage
 Umbilical cord becomes pinched or tangled.
 Sedatives interfere with baby’s breathing.
 Breech presentation (feet or buttocks first)
− Severe oxygen shortage
 Memory impairment
 Cerebral palsy: a neurological disability primarily associated with difficulty
controlling muscle movements

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 Complicated Delivery

• Cesarean section:
− A surgical procedure in which an incision is made in the mother’s abdomen
and uterus so that the baby can be removed
− 21% of deliveries worldwide
− 32% in the United States

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 Medications

• Medications:
− Epidural block
− Administered through injection or lube in lower back
− Pain relief
− Longer labor

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 The Mother’s Experience

• 77% view pregnancy as positive

• Cultural factors:
− Different views of the desirability of having children
− Birth practices vary widely

• Postpartum depression:
− 15–20% of new mothers
− Previous depression and lack of social support increase risk.

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 The Partner’s Experience

• Becoming a father is a significant event.

• Mix of emotions during pregnancy
• Some may experience physiological symptoms.
• Mix of emotions during labor and delivery
• Same-sex couples and heterosexual couples have similar experiences.

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 Discussion

Are there things that family members and friends can do to help reduce the
likelihood of postpartum depression for the new mother?

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3.4 The Neonatal Environment

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 Identifying At-Risk Newborns (1 of 3)

Newborns routinely
screened using Factors Score: 0 Score: 1 Score: 2
Apgar test. Heart rate Absent Slow (<100 beats Moderate (>100
per minute) beats per minute)
Assessment of
Respiratory effort Absent Slow or irregular Good, baby is
the newborn’s crying
heart rate, Muscle tone Flaccid; limp Weak; some flexion Strong; active
respiration, color, motion
muscle tone, and Color Blue or pale Body pink; extremist Completely pink
reflexes blue
Reflex irritability No response Frown, grimace, or Vigorous cry
weak cry

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 Identifying At-Risk Newborns (2 of 3)

• Low Birth Weight

Based on Gestational Age Based on Weight

Extremely preterm (less than 28 Micro-preemie (less than 800 grams or 1.75
weeks) pounds)
Very preterm (28–32 weeks) Extremely low birth weight (less than 1000
grams of 2.2 pounds
Moderate to late preterm (32– Very low birth weight (less than 1500 grams
37 weeks) or 3.3 pounds)
Low birth weight (less than 2500 grams or
5.5 pounds)

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 Identifying At-Risk Newborns (3 of 3)

• Low birth weight is associated with: − Tobacco or alcohol use

− Age of mother (very young or old) − Stress
− Low SES − Pregnancies with multiple
fetuses
− Race
− Infections
− Prior premature deliveries
− High blood pressure

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 Risk and Resilience

• One-third of at-risk children show resilience:

− Effects of prenatal and perinatal complications decrease over time.
− Outcomes of early risk depend on the quality of the postnatal environment.

• Protective factors:
− Personal resources
− Supportive postnatal environment

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 Self-Assessment

• What do you think about development beginning at the moment of

conception?
• How would you explain the risks associated with alcohol consumption
during pregnancy to a friend?
• How do you think the experience of both the mother and partner during
pregnancy impact the development of the baby?

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 Summary (1 of 3)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• Techniques that may assist with conception.
• The main events for each of the three phases of the prenatal period.
• Three major processes of brain development during the prenatal period.
• The concept of fetal programming and its usefulness in understanding
connections between prenatal events and postnatal outcomes.

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 Summary (2 of 3)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• At least two teratogens that can lead to serious developmental defects
and two that can lead to mild or moderate defects.
• Characteristics of the parents-to-be that may influence pregnancy and
its outcomes.
• The effects of various interventions during delivery on neonatal
outcomes.

©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 58
 Summary (3 of 3)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• Cultural practices surrounding labor, delivery, and neonatal life and how
these differences might affect later child development.
• Two methods that might be used to identify the likelihood of risk for the
newborn.
• How we can optimize the development of at-risk newborns.

©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 59