Political Participation

POLI 201 L02

Democracy and Voting

• At an abstract level we can differentiate between two basic types of democracy:

• Direct democracy: political system in which citizens are directly involved in the decision-making process

• Indirect democracy: political system of representation in which citizens elect a delegate to act on their
behalf; also called representative democracy.
• Indirect democracy uses elections to decide who will be given the authority to make decisions on behalf of the
entire political grouping
• Election: a form of choosing political representatives whereby individual citizens cast their vote for their
preferred candidate
• Ballot: card used to cast a vote; ballots are kept in a designated ballot box and counted by electoral officials

• Every electoral system, whatever its composition, sets out formal restrictions on who may vote and through what
means
Democracy and Voting, cont’d

• Suffrage (granting of the right to vote) historically has been evolutionary, where some
groups were not necessarily given the same rights
• Ex. women, minorities, Aboriginals
• See Box 7.4 for suffragette movement

• Age of voting in Canada is 18

• See Box 7.1 for more on who votes in Canada
Democracy and Voting, cont’d

• In some countries, membership in political parties determines whether an individual is

permitted to stand for election
• Political party: organization that seeks to gain and maintain political power
• Independents: electoral candidates who do not belong to a political party

• Candidates will run in “ridings” or constituencies

• Constituencies: territorial or geographical localities represented by a politician
chosen through the electoral process
Democracy and Voting, cont’d

• Constituencies are based on region, and who lives where through enumeration
• Enumeration: the process of determining the number of individuals eligible to vote in
a constituency

• Throughout history, political boundaries have been altered for political gain
• Rotten boroughs: in Britain, areas with very small populations and electorates that
were given equal standing with normal-sized constituencies
• Pocket boroughs: in Britain, areas where very small electorates were in the pocket of
(controlled by) the major local landowners
 • In the United States:
• Gerrymandering:
controversial method of
grouping together, or
dividing, groups of
voters in order to
maximize or reduce
Democracy their power (See Box
7.2)

and Voting, • In Canada:

cont’d • 1964: Canadian federal
government decided to
entrust the drawing of
constituency borders to
ten independent
commissions, one per
province; has largely
solved the problem of
altering boundaries to
affect election
outcomes
Voter Apathy

• One of the most critical problems facing election systems today:

• Voter apathy: condition in which individuals do not vote or do not follow the election
process because they believe that elections do not affect or influence them or that
their vote has little influence over outcomes

• All major democracies have engaged in public awareness and education campaigns
designed to increase participation, with a particular focus on young people
• Ex. Rock the Vote program in the US; some success
Voter Apathy, cont’d

• Studies show that the tendency to vote and voting preferences are determined largely by
one’s position in society, level of education, family background, and profession
• Much more likely to vote: upper echelons of society; highly educated; family
background of political participation

• To encourage voter participation, it is essential that society provides adequate and reliable
information about political parties and individual candidates
• Easier or harder thanks to the media and Internet? Is too much information confusing
and disorienting? What about “fake news”?
Compulsory Voting

• Compulsory voting: system in which citizens have a legal obligation to vote in elections
• Ex. Australia, Brazil, Peru, and Turkey
• Arguments supporting: this system not only encourages greater citizen participation
and awareness of political issues, but also gives elected governments more legitimacy
• Arguments against: voting is a right, not a duty; it is wrong to force unwilling citizens
to vote; doing so may make people resent the political process, damaging their
commitment to democratic values
Types of Electoral Systems

• Three basic categories of electoral systems:

• Simple plurality system (first-past-the-post)
• Two-round system (run-off system)
• Proportional representation (PR)
• Party list system
• Single transferable vote (STV) system
1. Simple Plurality

• Simple plurality (first-past-the-post): electoral system in which the winner receives the most (but not
necessarily a majority of) votes

• Whoever gets the most votes, wins

• Tends to marginalize smaller parties in multiparty systems

• Effective in systems where there are few candidates, providing stable majority governments

• May lead to minority government

Minority Government

• Minority government: government by the party that received the most, but not a
majority of, votes in an election

• Quite common in systems with several parties for a party to win the most, but not
majority (50% +) of votes

• Implications for capacity of government to govern, since the combined force of the
opposition can “outvote” government

• Question: how effective is opposition?

2. Two-Round System

• Two-round (run-off) system: a form of electoral system in which the two (or three)
candidates receiving the most votes in the first round pass to a second round of voting to
determine an outright winner

• In alternative vote or “instant run-off” systems, voters are asked to rank candidates on the
ballot according to their preferences; if no candidate wins a majority on the basis of first
preferences, the least popular candidate is eliminated and their voters are redistributed
according to second preferences
• Often used in Canada to select party leaders
3. Proportional Representation

• Proportional representation: electoral system in which seats are designated according to

the parties’ popular vote; used in countries to institute proportions between votes
allotted for all the parties

• Many models, but each is designed to make the popular vote count
Party List

• Party list: voting system in which voters in multi-member constituencies choose from a
list of candidates; parties are rewarded with a percentage of the seats available in each
constituency

• % of votes = # of seats

• Two forms:
• Closed list – voters express their preference for the party only;
• Open list – voters indicate which candidates they prefer
Single Transferable Vote (STV)

• STV: voting system in which voters cast their ballot in multi-member constituencies,
expressing their ranked preferences for candidates; subsequent choices may be
transferred and counted if all seats are not filled in first count

• Seats are not “won” until designated number of votes have been earned
Mixed-Member Proportional System

• Mixed-member proportional system: mix of simple plurality or majority system and

proportional representation voting; voters cast a vote for a local representative and for a
political party

• This system maintains a link between representatives and their constituencies while
allowing smaller parties to establish themselves and gain experience
Political Parties

• In brief, political parties are organized groups that place members as candidates for
election with the goal of governing the political system

• Political parties and their level of influence in society and government vary from country
to country
• One-party system: only one political party is allowed to form the government or
compete in elections
• Competitive party system: liberal democratic electoral system in which political
parties are permitted to compete with one another for the electorates’ support
Political Parties, cont’d

• Two-party system: competitive party system marked by two competing parties

• Multi-party system: competitive party system with more than two parties

• Classifications tend to be alterable depending on the prevailing interests in society

• The US is often acknowledged as a two-party system, but the relative dominance of
the traditional parties – the Republicans and Democrats – was challenged by the
Reform Party in the 1990s
Canada’s Political Parties

• Three political parties have official party status in the House of Commons:
• The Liberal Party
• The Conservative Party of Canada
• The New Democratic Party
The Liberal Party

• The party that has governed Canada most often

• Locates itself at the ideological centre, favouring social liberal policies

• Liberal governments have tended to pursue a cooperative approach to federalism

• Liberal vision for the country has emphasized bilingualism, multiculturalism, international
peacekeeping, and most recently, reconciliation with Indigenous peoples, a proactive
approach to immigrant and refugee settlement, and gender equity
The Liberal Party, cont’d

• 1919-2009: used a delegated convention to choose its leaders

• The delegate model has been criticized for its elitist nature, because it restricts
participation in leadership votes to the delegates in attendance at the convention

• In the 2013 process that selected Justin Trudeau as leader, a preferential ballot was
made available to members and supporters online and by phone
• Also: each riding was given a weight of 100 points – regardless of population –
and all voters were aligned with the appropriate riding
The Conservative Party of Canada

• Old and new; formed officially in 2003 with the merger of two parties on the right of the
political spectrum: the Canadian Alliance (formerly the Reform Party) and the Progressive
Conservative Party

• Both the Progressive Conservatives and the Conservatives have stood for fiscal
responsibility, low taxes, a decentralized approach to federalism, free trade, and being
tough on crime
• More recently: opposed to the idea of a carbon tax and has argued for a strong role
for Canada abroad and a larger allocation for defence spending in the budget
The Conservative Party, cont’d

• In 2017, Andrew Scheer was chosen as party leader on a ranked ballot

• Party members were eligible to cast ballots electronically, and each riding was
weighted at 100 points
• Scheer narrowly defeated Maxime Bernier, thought to be the frontrunner
• Bernier left the caucus shortly after to form a new party, The People’s Party of Canada
• Will this new party “split the right”?
The New Democratic Party (NDP)

• Formed in 1961, following a merger of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF)

and the Canadian Labour Congress

• Has never formed government at the federal level; nationally, usually the “third place
party”

• Leans to the left of the political spectrum; supports social justice, human and civil rights,
environmental measures such as the carbon tax, diversity and inclusion, poverty
reduction, the decriminalization of marijuana and other drugs, and a redistributive tax
system
The NDP, cont’d

• Has argued for the abolition of the Senate and a proportional voting system

• NDP’s popularity has ebbed and flowed, reaching a high point in 2011 under the
leadership of Jack Layton, when the party achieved official opposition status
• Party messaging resonated in Quebec especially; personal popularity of Layton was a
significant factor, too

• Jagmeet Singh selected as leader in 2017

• NDP had planned one preferential ballot a week until a candidate achieved a
majority, but that turned out not to be necessary
Party Types

• Cadre party: party created and directed by a small elite group; tend to control much
power within legislatures

• Mass party: party organized in society at large rather than within government; has public
influence through power of membership, not of a small minority elite
Party Types, cont’d

• Catch-all party: political party that covers a wide range of ideologies and beliefs in society,
with the idea of incorporating as many different societal groups as possible
• AKA: umbrella party

• Militia party: party system with a centralized leadership system; often having martial
leadership and frequently found in one-party systems
Functions of Political Parties

• Political parties play a recruitment function, in that they help to bring new voters into the
political process;

• Parties create a link between government and the people;

• Parties form a method of arranging and categorizing interests in society;

• Party support gives us a sense of how the electorate feels about the role of
government in society and the approach that administrations should take
Functions of Political Parties, cont’d

• Parties are a basic way for private citizens to register their backing for individual potential
representatives or for the ideas that the party puts forward;

• As institutions, parties embody established structures that might be used to train party
workers and future leaders;

• Once in power, parties are crucial in creating and upholding the direction, approach, and
organization for government
Functions of Political Parties, cont’d

• One of the central organizers in our political systems

• Educate members, organize legislators within the parliament or congress, coordinate
positions, discipline those who go against the party line, and negotiate with other
parties

• In some countries, parties employ a specific party member to enforce the party discipline
• The whip or chief whip: works to guarantee that all party members vote according to
the preferences of the party
Functions of Political Parties, cont’d

• By engaging in dialogue at the local level, parties help the democratic process
• Over the years, parties have been responsible for pushing a wide array of issues onto
the legislative agenda, from civil rights to environmental protection

• In many countries, parties are responsible for registering voters

• It is in their interest to help as many potential supporters as possible to vote
• On election day, phoning registered voters with reminders, or helping to transport
voters to the polls
How Political Parties Function

• Highly organized, professionally run organizations

• Have full-time staff, extended databases, and widespread networks

• Are becoming more sophisticated and strategic in their communications and interactions
with voters
• Internal lists of voters, complete with personal information to create a “profile” of
each voter (thanks to AI and data analysis)
• Not subject to privacy laws in Canada – we don’t know how well parties know us or
how they are using our information
Election Campaigns

• Every country has unique laws about setting elections and the rules that surround them

• During elections, parties play a central role in organizing campaigns and determining
policy positions

• Frequently use negative campaigning and smear tactics to win support to their cause (See
Box 7.5)
• Attack ads: negative and aggressive advertising by one political party or organization
against another
Election Campaigns, cont’d

• Public’s awareness of the issues and candidates’ election platforms is crucial at this time
• Positions of political parties or individuals regarding issues and political intentions

• Parties play a key role in election campaigns by providing guidance

• Internal party “machinery” (staff and organizational resources) provides coherence to
the campaign and helps candidates transmit their message and receive support from
the party rank and file
Campaign Financing

• Political parties are chiefly important to financing political competition in Canada and
globally
• Coordinate fundraising activities for candidates and for the parties at large, both
during and outside campaign periods

• How parties and candidates finance their bids for public office is often controversial
• Canadian political actors are permitted to accept private donations to their
campaigns and, in many circumstances, are eligible for reimbursements for election
expenses
• Reimbursements are tax-payer funded, i.e., all taxpayers play a role in funding
democracy
Campaign Financing, cont’d

• Large contributions from wealthy donors can cause concern that there is an attempt to
buy political favours, so many jurisdictions – Canada included – place limits on the size of
contributions to avoid the perception and reality of corruption
• In Canada, only individuals (not corporate or trade union donations) can contribute to
political campaigns;
• We limit the amounts that political entities can spend;
• We require candidates, parties, and third parties to disclose reports of their election
expenses so that we know who is donating to whom and in what amounts (any
donation over $200)
Direct Democracy and the Referendum

• Direct democracy: rather than let the institutions of politics (parliament, political parties,
and elected representatives) decide for the people, the people are asked to make a
decision
• Referendum: citizens of voting age are asked to express their opinions on a particular
policy in an official vote, the results of which will determine whether that policy is
adopted by the government

• Ex. Switzerland: citizens are asked to vote on issues regularly, and the outcome of
these votes is then passed onto the cantons
Direct Democracy and the Referendum,
cont’d

• Referenda can be controversial because they can be manipulated by politicians to help

them reinforce their grip on power

• Referenda can also be very divisive in that they can create a binary out of a situation that
is actually complex, and may not close the debate on the issue in question
• Ex. The Brexit vote; even though the results of the referendum are “final,” the debate
is far from over and the path to Brexit (or not?) is unclear
Elections and Political Parties in Canada

• Voting age is 18; so is age for candidates

• Maximum period of 5 years between federal elections

• Despite the dominance of the Liberal and Conservative parties federally, Canada has also
witnessed the emergence of parties with specific regional support

• The Canada Elections Act provides state subsidies for candidates who achieve 10 per cent of
votes and allows candidates to raise private funds
• But limits on total spending; requires detailed accounts of all monies received and spent
Elections and Political Parties in Canada,
cont’d

• Limit for individual contributions: $1575/year

• Ongoing debate about how to ensure wealthy groups and individuals do not circumvent
rules
• growing concern about third parties that are permitted to accept unlimited donations

• Referendum has been used on a number of occasions, but rarely on the federal level
• 1980 and 1995 referenda on Quebec’s future in the union; simple “yes” or “no”
question; in 1995, outcome left almost half of Quebec’s population unsatisfied