Chapter 4
Bacteria and Archaea
Lesson 4.1:
Bacterial Structure and Growth
1. Identify bacterial shapes and
arrangements.
2. Discuss the basis of bacterial growth.
3. Explain the bacterial population growth
curve.
4. Discuss factors that influence microbial
growth.
5. Describe methods for measuring
microbial growth.
6. Discuss the nutritional requirements for
bacterial growth.
7. Discuss replication and expression of
Shapes (1 of 2)
Cocci
Overall shape is spherical or nearly
spherical
Bacilli
Rod-shaped
Some endospore forming
Pleomorphic
Variable or morphologically indistinct
Example
• Coccobacilli—bacilli that are elongated and
spherical
Shapes (2 of 2)
Spirals
Vibrios
• Curved or comma-shaped rods
Spirillum
• Thick, rigid, spiral organisms
Spirochetes
• Thin, flexible spirals
Arrangements
In addition to their shape, bacteria can
also be categorized according to their
arrangement and their style of grouping
after cell division
Cocci
Diplococci
Typically appear in pairs
Example: Streptococcus pneumoniae
Streptococci
Beadlike chains
Example: Streptococcus pyogenes
Tetrads
Produced by division within two planes
Sarcinae
Cocci arranged in cubes of eight as a result
of division in three planes
Staphylococci
Grapelike clusters formed by cell division in
random planes
Bacilli
Diplobacilli
Paired rods that remain in pairs after
division
Streptobacilli
Fail to separate after they divide and remain
in chains
Some bacilli divide along the long axis
of the cell and remain attached
producing a palisade arrangement
Binary Fission
Results in two identical daughter cells
Sufficient metabolites necessary to
divide
A cascade of regulatory events must
occur to initiate replication
Once replication is started, DNA
synthesis must run to completion
When metabolites are depleted—
cessation
Population Growth Curve (1 of 2)
Lag phase
Bacteria have to adapt to medium before
cell division
Cells are metabolically active
Logarithmic or exponential growth
phase
The rate of growth increases with time
Each cell introduced to medium divides by
binary fission
Each subsequent binary fission doubles the
bacterial cells
Population Growth Curve (2 of 2)
Stationary phase
Occurs when essential nutrients are
depleted or byproducts of metabolism
accumulate
Also depends on the type of organism
Death phase
Begins when growth stops and the number
of dead cells is larger than the number of
viable cells
Measuring Growth (1 of 2)
Measurement of cell mass
Dry weight
• More accurate estimation
• More time-consuming
• Cells need to be washed and then dried
Turbidity (cloudiness)
• Measured with spectrophotometer
• In optical density units
• The greater the cell mass, the less light will pass
through
Measuring Growth (2 of 2)
Measurement of cell number
Direct cell count
• Microscopically in counting chambers (Petroff-
Hauser chambers)
Slide with a grid of 25 small squares
Viable counts
• Only living cells are counted
Pour plating
Spread plating
Most probable number method
Factors Influencing Bacterial Growth
Nutritional requirements
Temperature
Osmotic pressure
Other atmospheric conditions
Nutritional Requirements (1 of 3)
Phototrophs
Acquire energy from light
Chemotrophs
Acquire energy from chemical compounds
Carbon
Provides the backbone for all organic
compounds
Autotrophs
• Obtain carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide
Heterotrophs
• Use carbon from organic compounds
Nutritional Requirements (2 of 3)
Photoautotrophs
Use sunlight as the energy source
Use carbon dioxide as their carbon source
Photosynthetic bacteria, algae, green plants
Chemoautotrophs
Use chemical compounds as the source of
energy and carbon dioxide
Photoheterotrophs
Use sunlight for energy
Use organic compounds as carbon source
Chemoheterotrophs
Use organic compounds for both the source
of energy and a carbon source
Nutritional Requirements (3 of 3)
Nitrogen
Some bacteria can obtain nitrogen from
inorganic compounds such as nitrates
Sulfur and phosphorus
Can be met by organic compounds or
inorganic salts of sulfates, sulfides, and
thiosulfates
Minerals
Required in trace amounts
Temperature (1 of 2)
Mesophiles
Optimal growth in moderate temperatures
Generally between 25º C and 40º C
Habitat: Soil, human body, animals
Most bacteria fall into this classification
Thermophiles
Heat-loving organisms
Grow best at temperatures of 45º C or
higher
Hot springs, deep sea hydrothermal vents,
tropical soil composts (rotting), hay stacks
Temperature (2 of 2)
Psychrophiles (cryophiles)
Cold-loving—can grow at 0º C or lower
Optimal growth around 15º C
Arctic and Antarctic regions
Psychrotrophs
Grow very slowly at 0º C but have an
optimal growth range of 25º to 30º C
Abundant in nature and can cause food
spoilage at refrigerator temperatures
Osmotic Pressure
Microorganisms with cell walls can
withstand some osmotic pressure
Osmotolerant
Osmophiles
Microbes that require high solute
concentration in the environment for
optimal growth
Halophiles
Salt lovers (e.g., Halobacterium)
Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure that a fluid exerts in a confined
space
Barotolerant
Microorganisms that can survive in
increased hydrostatic pressures
Barophiles
Grow best under high hydrostatic pressure
Occur only in the deepest part of oceans
Atmospheric Conditions (1 of 2)
Obligate aerobes
Grow only in the presence of oxygen
Obtain energy through aerobic respiration
Obligate anaerobes
Grow only in the absence of oxygen
Inhibited or killed by the presence of oxygen
Aerotolerant anaerobes
Can grow in the presence of oxygen but
cannot use oxygen for energy requirements
Fermentation only (obligate fermenters)
Atmospheric Conditions (2 of 2)
Facultative anaerobes
Grow either in the absence or presence of
oxygen
Microaerophiles
Require a low concentration of oxygen
Approximately 2% to 10% less than
atmospheric oxygen
Capneic bacteria
Require more carbon dioxide than present in
regular atmosphere
pH
The pH of natural environments ranges
from approximately 0.5 in acidic soils to
approximately 10.5 in alkaline lakes
Optimal pH range varies for microbes
Neutrophils
Range: 5 to 8
Acidophiles
Best pH below 5.5
Alkaliphiles
Best pH above 8.5
Lesson 4.2:
Classification of Bacteria and
Archaea
8. Describe the criteria used in the
classification of bacteria.
9. Discuss medically important bacteria
and their classification according to
Bergey’s Manual of Systematic
Bacteriology.
Classification
Prokaryotes are divided into bacteria
and archaea
According to Bergey’s Manual of
Systematic Bacteriology
Much more is known about bacteria
than archaea
Archaea are a group of bacteria that
have different features than other
bacteria
Criteria
A bacterial species is defined as a group of
bacteria that exhibit a large number of
similar characteristics
Phenotypic classifications of bacteria
involve the microscopic and macroscopic
morphologies and were the first used to
identify bacteria
Measurements of the presence or absence
of specific biochemical markers such as
fermentation of specific carbohydrates or
the presence of specific enzymes are also
used for purposes of identification
Binomial System of
Nomenclature
Domain Bacteria
Kingdom Monera
Phylum Proteobacteria
Class Gammaproteobacteria
Order Enterobacteriales
Family Enterobacteriaceae
Genus Escherichia
Species E. Coli
Spirochetes
Group of helical, motile bacteria
Twisting motions of their axial fibrils
Found in various aqueous environments
and in association with human or animal
hosts
Pathogens
Treponema pallidum—Syphilis
Borrelia burgdorferi—Lyme disease
Leptospira interrogans—Leptospirosis
Aerobic/Microaerophilic Helical
Vibrioid Gram-Negative Bacteria
Either slightly curved or have multiple
helical turns
Motile with help of flagella
Live in fresh or coastal waters
Some cause disease in humans or
animals
Gram-Negative Aerobic
Rods and Cocci
Diverse group; extensively investigated
Widely distributed in nature
Many are human and animal pathogens
Respiratory metabolism; not
fermentation
Rhizobia are soil bacteria; nitrogen
fixation
Facultative Anaerobic
Gram-Negative Rods
Large group of bacteria with simple
nutritional requirements
Present in soil, water, intestinal tract of
animals and humans
E. coli is the “workhorse” of molecular
biology
Anaerobic Gram-Negative Rods
Can be straight, curved, helical, motile,
or nonmotile
Present in the GI tract of humans and
animals
Leptotrichia buccalis and Fusobacterium
species are often found along the gum
line and tooth surfaces
Anaerobic Gram-Negative Cocci
Often occur in pairs
Found in mouth, intestines, vagina
Veillonella causes rare opportunistic
infections
Often associated with long-standing
gingivitis in dental patients
Rickettsias and Chlamydias
Very small gram-negative bacteria
Majority require host for replication
Generally rod-shaped but also may look
coccoidal
Often cause disease
Rickettsiae need a vertebrate and an
arthropod host
Chlamydias do not infect invertebrates
Rickettsiae rickettsii
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Chlamydiae trachomatis
Urogenital infections
Mycoplasmas and Ureaplasma
Smallest of the free-living bacteria
Do not have cell walls
Pleomorphic
Resistant to penicillin, cephalosporins,
vancomycin, and other antibiotics that
interfere with cell wall synthesis
Special growth requirements
Can cause disease in humans, animals,
and plants
Gram-Positive Cocci
Include aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
Range from harmless to very virulent
forms
Includes Micrococcus, Staphylococcus,
Streptococcus, Peptococcus
Endospore-Forming Gram-
Positive
Rods and Cocci (1 of 2)
Include Bacillus and Clostridium
Important in medicine and food industry
Spores are resistant to heat and
disinfectants
Widespread in the soil
Clostridium perfringens is widely
distributed in the environment
Decaying matter, marine sediment,
intestinal tract of humans and other
animals
Endospore-Forming Gram-Positive
Rods and Cocci (2 of 2)
Common cause of food poisoning
Bacilli are either obligate aerobes or
facultative anaerobes
Clostridia are mainly obligate anaerobes
Include free-living and pathogenic
species
Regular Nonsporulating
Gram-Positive Rods
Obligate or facultative anaerobes
Complex nutritional requirements
Include Carnobacterium, Lactobacillus,
and Listeria
Lactobacilli convert lactose and other
sugars to lactic acid
Most are harmless
Some species used in industry
Yogurt, cheese, sauerkraut, pickles
Listeria monocytogenes
Causative agent of listeriosis
Irregular Nonsporing
Gram-Positive Rods
Unusual shape—pleomorphic
Mostly facultative anaerobes, few
obligate aerobes
Medically important species
Actinomyces—opportunistic
Corynebacterium diphtheria—diphtheria
Propionibacterium acnes—acne
Actinomyces israelii—periodontal disease,
lung infections
Mycobacteria
Gram-positive, aerobic, acid-fast rods
Tend to form filaments
Widespread in water, soil, and food
sources
Some are obligate intracellular parasites
in humans and animals
Difficult to grow in culture
Can colonize in host without symptoms
Infections are difficult to treat
Neither truly gram-negative or gram-
positive
Naturally resistant to many antibiotics
Nocardioforms
Aerobic, gram-positive, catalase-
positive rods
Form branching filaments
Widespread in the environment
Opportunistic
Infection generally rare
Originate in lungs and spread to other
organ systems
Streptomycetes
Gram-positive
Predominantly in soil and decaying
vegetation
Most are spore forming
Generally not pathogenic; infrequently
cause disease
Important source for antibiotics
Methanogens
Archaea that grow in anaerobic
environments (e.g., swamps, marshes,
marine sediments, sludge, hydrothermal
vents)
Produce methane as metabolic
byproduct
Rapidly killed by oxygen