Chapter – Three

3. Morphometric Analysis of Terrain

3.1 Relief and Slope analysis
Definition of Slope
Morphometric Analysis of Terrain refers to the quantitative study and
measurement of the shape, size, and structure of the Earth's surface
features. It involves analyzing various physical characteristics of terrain or
landforms, such as hills, valleys, slopes, and river networks, to understand
their formation, evolution, and functioning within the landscape.
Relief: Refers to the variations in elevation and terrain of the Earth's surface,
such as mountains, valleys, and plains.
• It describes how the land rises and falls across a region.
• The slope (also called grade) of a physical feature, topographic landform,
refers to the steepness or degree of incline of a land surface
• A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree of "tilt". Often slope is
calculated as a ratio of "rise" to "run", or as a fraction ("rise over run") in
which run is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical distance.
Slope vs elevations
Cont..
 Cont..
Slope Gradient: The degree of steepness of the land,
usually measured in degrees or as a percentage.
• It’s calculated from the change in elevation over a
horizontal distance.
– Formula: Slope = (rise / run) × 100
• Where "rise" is the change in elevation, and
"run" is the horizontal distance.
• Slope Direction: The orientation of the slope, which
indicates the direction of water flow or prevailing wind
direction.
• Slope Steepness: A classification of slope steepness
helps determine areas prone to specific risks like
erosion or landslides.
 Types of slope
1. Based on Steepness:
• Slopes are often classified according to how steep they are.
• These are typically measured in degrees (°) or percentages
(%), where the degree refers to the angle of the slope, and
the percentage describes the ratio of vertical rise to
horizontal distance.
• Gentle Slope:
 Degrees: 0° to 5° (or a rise of up to 5% over horizontal distance).
 Description: These slopes are relatively flat and easy to
traverse or develop. They are common in plains and
valley floors.
 Examples: Flat agricultural land or coastal plains.
 Cont.
Moderate Slope:
 Degrees: 5° to 15° (or 5% to 30%).
 Description: These slopes have a noticeable incline but are
still manageable for most activities like farming, roads, and
construction.
 Examples: Hillsides with moderate elevation changes.
 Cont.
Steep Slope:
Degrees: 15° to 30° (or 30% to 60%).
Description: These slopes are steeper and can
be challenging for construction, agriculture,
and transportation. Landslides are more likely
in areas with steep slopes.
Examples: Steep mountain terrains or cliffs.
 Cont..

Very Steep Slope:

 Degrees: Above 30° (or above 60%).
 Description: These are difficult slopes to traverse and are
prone to erosion and landslides. Buildings or infrastructure
are rarely constructed on such slopes.
 Examples: Mountain peaks, cliff faces, and landslide-
prone areas.
 2. Based on Shape/Contour:
• Slopes can also be categorized based on their shape or
formation. These types of slopes describe the profile or
geometry of the land.
• Concave Slope:
– Description: A concave slope curves inward, with the
upper part of the slope steeper than the lower part. These
slopes are typically found in valleys and are often
associated with erosion processes.
– Examples: The sides of a valley or riverbank where
erosion has created a curved shape.
 Cont..
Convex Slope:
Description: A convex slope curves outward, with
the lower part being steeper than the upper part.
Convex slopes are often the result of deposition
and are less prone to erosion.
Examples: Hillsides that extend out from a peak.
 Cont..

Linear or Straight Slope:

 Description: A straight slope has a consistent gradient from
top to bottom.
 It doesn't curve or change shape as the land rises or falls.
 These slopes can occur in areas like plateaus or along
ridgelines.
 Examples: Certain plateaus or ridges where the land surface
has a consistent slope.
 Cont..
Step or Terraced Slope:
Description: These slopes have multiple flat steps
or terraces. They often occur naturally in hilly or
mountainous regions or are artificially created for
farming (terracing) to reduce soil erosion.
Examples: Terraced fields in hilly areas, such as
those in Southeast Asia or the Andes.
 Summary of slope classification
Type Description Examples

Gentle Slope Flat, mild incline, easy to Plains, farmland.

traverse.
Moderate Slope Noticeable incline but manageable Rolling hills, small mountain slopes.
for development.

Steep Slope Steep, challenging terrain, prone to Mountain sides, cliffs.

erosion.

Very Steep Slope Difficult terrain, landslide-prone, Mountain peaks, cliff faces.
unsuitable for construction.

Concave Slope Curves inward, with a steeper upper Valleys, riverbanks.

section.

Convex Slope Curves outward, with a steeper lower Hillsides, elevated land.
section.

Linear Slope Consistent gradient from top to Plateaus, ridgelines.

bottom.
Step Slope Features terraces or steps, often man- Terraced fields.
made.
 3.2 Drainage basin and steam network Analysis

• The initiation and subsequent evolution of any drainage system

are determined by two main factors.
• Firstly, there is the nature of the surface on which the streams
begin to flow.
• These will naturally, follow the lines of steepest gradient; in other
words, their course will be consequent upon the form of the land
surface and such streams are accordingly referred to as
‘consequents’.
• Clearly the initial consequent pattern will vary greatly in its
complexity, depending on the degree of irregularity of the ‘initial
surface’.
 Cont..
• The second main factor in drainage initiation and development
is geological structure in the widest sense of that term (that
is, including folds, faults, joints, angles of dip and lithology).
• There is an almost infinite variety in the patterns formed by
drainage system in areas of different rock-type, geological
structure, climate regime and erosional history (time or age
of the erosion).
Drainage Basin (also called a Catchment Area):
A drainage basin is a geographical area that collects and
drains all the water (from precipitation, rivers, lakes, etc.) into
a common outlet, such as a river, stream, or sea.
• Essentially, it is the entire land area that contributes surface
water to a specific watercourse.
Drainage Network:
• A drainage network is the interconnected system of rivers,
streams, tributaries, and drainage channels within a
drainage basin. It is the pattern of flow of water across the
terrain, as it connects the various sources of water to a
common outlet.
 Cont.
Watershed:
• A watershed refers to the area of land that drains into a
specific river or body of water. It is often used interchangeably
with drainage basin, though a watershed can sometimes refer
to a smaller, local area, whereas a drainage basin is typically a
larger region
Drainage System:
• A drainage system refers to the entire infrastructure that
facilitates the movement of water from higher elevations to
lower elevations. This includes both natural systems (rivers,
streams, and groundwater) and man-made systems (such as
drainage ditches, culverts, storm water systems, and canals).
 Cont..
• Stream Order:
– A way to classify the size of streams and rivers in a drainage
network based on their position within the system. For example:
• First-order streams: Small headwater streams with no
tributaries.
• Second-order streams: Formed when two first-order streams
meet.
• Higher-order streams: As streams merge, they increase in
order.
• Divide (also called a Drainage Divide):
– A geographical boundary or ridge that separates adjacent
drainage basins. Water that falls on one side of a divide will flow
into one basin, while water that falls on the other side will flow
into a different basin.
– Example: The Great Divide in North America, which separates
waters flowing to the Atlantic Ocean from those flowing to the
Pacific.
 Cont..

• Base Level:
– The lowest point to which a river or stream can flow.
It is typically the level of the body of water the river
drains into (e.g., a sea, ocean, or lake).
• Confluence:
– The point where two rivers or streams meet and
combine their waters. A famous example is where the
Missouri River meets the Mississippi River.
• Floodplain:
– The flat area adjacent to a river or stream, which is
subject to periodic flooding. Floodplains are formed
by the natural deposition of sediments by floodwaters.
 Summary
Term Description
Drainage Basin An area where all water drains into a common outlet (river, sea, etc.).
Drainage The system of rivers, streams, and channels within a drainage basin.
Network
Watershed The land area draining into a specific water body, often used
interchangeably with drainage basin.
Drainage System The complete system of water movement, including both natural and
man-made structures.
Catchment Area A synonym for drainage basin, the area where water collects for a
specific water body.
Stream Order A classification system based on the position of streams within a
drainage network.
Divide A ridge separating two drainage basins.
Base Level The lowest point a river or stream can flow.
Confluence The point where two rivers or streams meet.
Floodplain Flat area next to a river prone to flooding, often used for agriculture.
 3.3 Evolution of different drainage patterns
A. Dendritic Patterns- these are very common patterns, and
mostly associated with areas of uniform lithology, horizontal or
very gently dipping strata & low relief (as extensive clay plain).
• They include a multitude of small branch streams which join
each other, usual at fairly acute angles, to nourish a large trunk
stream.
• The actual closeness of the pattern will vary a great deal,
depending on the permeability of the underlying rock and the
amount and nature of the precipitation, both of which will
influence the intensity of surface run-off.
 Cont..
B. Trellised Patterns- these are again common, particularly in
areas run broadly at right angles a cross attenuated resistant and
unresisting rock out crops.
• The weaker strata are gradually eroded to form strike voles,
separated by cuestas associated with the more resistant rocks,
and are occupied by tributary streams which, with the passage
of time, for an increasingly dominant component of the
trellised pattern.
C. Rectangular Patterns- these again show some resemblance
to trellised patterns.
• However, whereas in the latter the main & tributary streams
join approximately at right angles, in a rectangular pattern the
individual streams may themselves show marked angularities
of course.
• These are invariably the result of geological control, this time
not the out crops of weak strata but well-defined lines of
weakness such as faults or joint along which the streams have
extended their courses by head ward erosion and spring
sapping.
 Cont..
D. Sub parallel Patterns –these are perhaps the most simple
pattern of all, & comprise a series of stream, which run
approximately parallel to each other.
• Sub parallel patterns are especially characteristic of areas of
uniformly dipping rocks (such as the dip-slopes of cuestas) or
areas which have recently been exposed by regression of the
area.
• In both cases, geological condition and/or the time factor have
not yet permitted the development of a more complex pattern
by the process of adjustment to structure.
• A sub parallel is therefore essentially an ‘initial’ drainage
pattern.
 Cont..

E. Radial Patterns –these comprise streams diverging from a

present or former high point, and are most usually associated
with dome structures (sometimes involving igneous intrusion, as
in batholiths& laccoliths) and large volcanic cones.
• The initial pattern is a simple one, but the gradual exposure of
less resistant rocks within the core of the dome or cane will
lead to the modification of the radial streams.
• In the case of the dome of sedimentary rocks, prolonged
denudation may reveal a series of concentric rock outcrops,
the weaker of which will favor the growth of tributaries.
• Thus a ‘rink-like’ element will be added to the initial pattern,
and in time what has been referred to as an ‘annular’ pattern
will come into existence.
 Cont..

F. Centripetal Patterns- these are formed by a series of stream

converging on central lowland from surrounding highlands, and are
characteristic of many desert areas, where down faulted blocks give
rise to basins of internal drainage.
G. Deranged Patterns-these are essentially ‘initial’ patterns, despite
the apparent implication of the name, & occur where these has been
insufficient time for drainage integration.
 They are typical areas of low land glaciation, whereas a result of
glacial scour &/or the deposition of hummocky sheets of boulder-
clay, sand & gravel the former drainage is completely, or very
nearly efface.
 On the irregular surface exposed by de glaciation, a new pattern,
characterized by small streams following irregular courses, baggy
depressions and numerous small lakes will be formed.
 Cont..
Basin network analysis
• Drainage basin, area of land that contributes the water it
receives as precipitation (except for losses through
evaporation, transpiration from plants, incorporation into
the soil or ground water, etc.) to a river or network of
rivers.
• Drainage basins are defined by topographical features,
called drainage divides, which determine the direction of
flow of water.
• Drainage basins are commonly viewed by scientists as
being open systems.
• Inputs to these systems include precipitation, snow melt,
and sediment.
 Cont..
• Drainage basins lose water and sediment through
evaporation, deposition, and stream flow.
• A number of factors influence input, output, and transport
of sediment and water in a drainage basin.
• Such factors include topography, soil type, bedrock type,
climate, and vegetation cover.
• These factors also influence the nature of the pattern of
stream channels (see the below figure).
Cont..