Memory

• Memory forms the basis of experience and

perception of self
• It is the necessary foundation of social
communication
• Memory is an umbrella concept that cannot be
categorised as overall good or bad
• This is because it is not a single system but
subsystems based on ideas of processing and
storage
 How does memory work

 Encoding: the information gets

Encoding
into our brains in a way that allows
it to be stored
 Storage: the information is held in
Storage a way that allows it to later be
retrieved
 Retrieval: reactivating and
Retrieval recalling the information,
producing it in a form similar to
what was encoded
Models of Memory Formation
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968) Modifying the Model:
[Link] are recorded by our senses More goes on in short-
and held briefly in sensory memory. term memory besides
[Link] of this information is rehearsal; this is now
processed into short-term memory called working memory.
and encoded through rehearsal . Some information
[Link] then moves into long- seems to go straight
from sensory experience
term memory where it can be into long-term memory;
retrieved later. this is automatic
processing.
Working Memory: Functions
The short-term memory is “working” in many ways.
 It holds information not just to rehearse it , but to process it (such
as hearing a word problem in math and doing it in your head).
Auditory Executive Visospatial
rehearsala choosing
functions rearranging
“sketchpad”
repeating what to room
password to attend to, furniture in
memorize it respond to your mind

Short-term memory integrates information from long-term memory

with new information coming in from sensory memory.
 Dual-Track Processing:
Explicit and Implicit Memories
Some memories are Other memories are formed
called explicit/ without going through all the
“declarative” memories. Atkinson-Shiffrin stages. These
These are facts and are implicit memories, the ones
experiences that we can we are not fully aware of and
consciously know and thus don’t “declare”/talk about.
recall.

Our minds acquire this These memories are typically

information through effortful formed through automatic
processing. Explicit memories processing. Implicit memories are
are formed through studying, formed without our awareness
rehearsing, thinking, that we are building a memory,
processing, and then storing and without rehearsal or other
information in long-term processing in working memory.
memory.
Automatic Processing
Some experiences go directly to long-term implicit
memory
Some experiences are processed automatically into implicit
memory, without any effortful/working memory processing:
 procedural memory, such as knowing how to ride a bike,
and well-practiced knowledge such as word meanings
 conditioned associations, such as a smell that triggers
thoughts of a favorite place
 information about space, such as being able to picture
where things are after walking through a room
 information about time, such as retracing a sequence of
events if you lost something
 information about frequency, such as thinking, “I just
noticed that this is the third texting driver I’ve passed today.”
 The Encoding and Processing of
Memory:
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory refers to
the immediate, very brief
recording of sensory
information before it is
processed into short-term,
working, or long-term
memory.
 We very briefly capture a sensory memory, analogous to an echo
or an image, of all the sensations we take in.
 How brief? Sensory memory consists of about a 3 to 4 second
echo, or a 1/20th of a second image.
 Evidence of auditory sensory memory, called “echoic” memory,
can occur after someone says, “what did I just say?” Even if you
weren’t paying attention, you can retrieve about the last eight
words from echoic memory.
 Evidence of Visual Sensory (Iconic) Memory:
George Sperling’s Experiments

 George Sperling (b. 1934) To simulate Sperling’s

exposed people to a 1/20th experiment, notice the three
rows of letters below. Based
of-a-second view of a grid on the color of the letters,
of letters, followed by a you will know that you must
tone which told them which recall one of the following
row of letters to pull from rows:
iconic memory and recall. top, middle or bottom.
 Without the tone, people
recalled about 50 percent of J Y Q
the letters; with the tone,
recall for any of the rows P G S
was typically 100 percent.
V F M
 Encoding Memory
Capacity of Short-Term and Working Working Memory, which
Memory uses rehearsal, focus,
analysis, linking, and
other processing, has
 If some information is selected greater capacity than
from sensory memory to be sent short-term memory. The
to short-term memory, how much capacity of working
information can we hold there?
 George Miller (b. 1920) proposed memory varies; some
people have better
that we can hold 7 +/-2
information bits (for example, a concentration.
string of 5 to 9 letters).
 More recent research suggests Test: see how many of
that the average person, free from these letters and
distraction, can hold about: numbers you can recall
 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words. after they disappear.
Test: No need for a hyphen
before the V.
–V M 3 C A Q 9 L D
 Duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)

Lloyd Peterson and Margaret

Peterson wanted to know the
duration of short term memory?
Their experiment (1959):
[Link] were given triplets of
consonants (e.g., “VMF”).
[Link] prevent rehearsing, the
subjects had to do a distracting
task.
[Link] were then tested at
various times for recall.
Result: After 12 seconds, most
memory of the consonants had
decayed and could not be
retrieved.
Encoding:
Effortful Processing Strategies
If we have short-term recall of Examples:
only 7 letters, but can  Chunking (grouping)
remember 5 words, doesn’t  Mnemonics: images,
that mean we could maps, and peg-words
remember more than 7 letters
if we could group them into  Hierarchies/categories
words?  Rehearsal, especially
This is an example of an distributed practice
effortful processing strategy,  Deep processing
a way to encode information  Semantic processing
into memory to keep it from  Making information
decaying and make it easier to personally meaningful
retrieve.
Effortful processing is also  Can you remember this
known as studying. list?
Effortful Processing Strategies
Chunking
 Why are credit card numbers broken into groups of
four digits? Four “chunks” are easier to encode
(memorize) and recall than 16 individual digits.
 Memorize: ACPCVSSUVROFLNBAQ XIDKKFCFBIANA
 Chunking: organizing data into manageable units
XID KKF CFB IAN AAC PCV S SU VRO FNB AQ
• Chunking works even better if we can assemble
information into meaningful groups:
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
 Effortful Processing Strategies
Mnemonics
A mnemonic is a memory
 Read: plane, cigar, due, “trick” that connects
shall, candy, vague, information to existing
pizza, seem, fire, pencil memory strengths such as
 Which words might be
imagery or structure.
easier to remember?
 Write down the words A peg word system refers
you can recall. to the technique of visually
 Lesson: we encode associating new words
better with the help of with an existing list that is
images. already memorized along
with numbers. For
example, “due” can be
pictured written on a door,
and door = 4.
Effortful Processing Strategies
Rehearsal and Distributed Practice
Massed Practice refers to cramming information all at once.
It is not time-effective.
 The spacing effect was first noted by The best way to
Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late practice? Consider the
1800s. You will develop better testing effect. Henry
retention and recall, especially in the Roediger (b. 1947)
long run, if you use the same amount found that if your
of study time spread out over many distributed practice
shorter sessions. includes testing
 This doesn’t mean you have to study (having to answer
questions about the
every day. Memory researcher Harry
material), you will
Bahrick noted that the longer the time
learn more and retain
between study sessions, the better
more than if you
the long-term retention, and the
merely reread.
fewer sessions you need!
Effortful Processing Strategies
Deep/Semantic Processing
When encoding information, we are more likely to retain it if
we deeply process even a simple word list by focusing on the
semantics (meaning) of the words.

“Shallow,”
unsuccessful
processing
refers to
memorizing the
appearance or
sound of
words.
Effortful Processing Strategies Memorize the following
words:
Making Information bold truck temper
green run drama
Personally Meaningful glue chips knob
hard vent rope
 We can memorize a set of instructions more easily if we
figure out what they mean rather than seeing them as set
of words.
 Memorizing meaningful material takes one tenth the effort
of memorizing nonsense syllables.
 Actors memorize lines (and students memorize poems)
more easily by deciding on the feelings and meanings
behind the words, so one line flows naturally to the next.
 The self-reference effect, relating material to ourselves,
aids encoding and retention.
 Now try again, but this time, consider how each word
relates to you.
Memory Storage:
Capacity and Location
 The brain is NOT like a hard
drive. Memories are NOT in
isolated files, but are in
overlapping neural networks.
 The brain’s long-term memory
storage does not get full; it gets
more elaborately rewired and
interconnected.
 Parts of each memory can be Karl Lashley (1890-1958)
distributed throughout the showed that rats who
brain. had learned a maze
 Memory of a particular retained parts of that
‘kitchen table’ may be a linkage memory, even when
among networks for ‘kitchen,’ various small parts of
‘meal,’ ‘wooden,’ ‘home,’ ‘legs,’ their brain were
and ‘sit.’ removed.
Memory Processing in The Brain
If memory is stored throughout the brain, how does it
get in there, and how do we retrieve it and use it?
There are different storage and retrieval/activation
systems in the brain for explicit/ declarative memory
and for implicit/ procedural memory.
When emotions become involved, yet another part of
the brain can mark/flag some memories for quicker
retrieval.
The storage occurs by changing how neurons link to
each other in order to make some well-used neural
networks of neurons easier to activate together.
Explicit Memory Processing
Explicit/declarative memories
include facts, stories, and
meanings of words such as the first
time riding a bike, or facts about
types of bicycles.
 Retrieval and use of explicit memories,
which is in part a working memory or
executive function, is directed by the
frontal lobes.
 Encoding and storage of explicit
memories is facilitated by the
hippocampus. Events and facts are held
there for a couple of days before
consolidating, moving to other parts of
the brain for long-term storage. Much of
this consolidation occurs during sleep.
The Brain Stores Reactions and Skills
Implicit Memory Processing
Implicit memories
include skills, procedures,
and conditioned
associations.
 The cerebellum (“little
brain”) forms and stores
our conditioned responses.
We can store a phobic
response even if we can’t
recall how we acquired the
fear.
 The basal ganglia, next to the thalamus, controls
movement, and forms and stores procedural memory
and motor skills. We can learn to ride a bicycle even if we
can’t recall having the lesson.
Emotions and Memory
 Strong emotions, especially
stress, can strengthen
memory formation.
 Flashbulb memories refer
to emotionally intense
events that become
“burned in” as a vivid-
seeming memory.
 Note that flashbulb
memories are not as
accurate as they feel.
 Vividly storing information
about dangers may have
helped our ancestors
survive.
Emotions, Stress Hormones,
the Amygdala, and Memory
How does intense emotion cause
the brain to form intense
memories? As a result, the memories are
[Link] can trigger a rise in stored with more sensory and
stress hormones. emotional details.
These details can trigger a
[Link] hormones trigger activity
in the amygdala, located next to rapid, unintended recall of the
the memory-forming memory.
hippocampus. Traumatized people can have
[Link] amygdala increases intrusive recall that is so vivid
memory-forming activity and that it feels like re-
engages the frontal lobes and experiencing the event.
basal ganglia to “tag” the
memories as important.
Messing with Long-Term Potentiation
 Chemicals and shocks that
prevent long-term potentiation
(LTP) can prevent learning and
even erase recent learning.
 Preventing LTP keeps new
memories from consolidating
into long-term memories. For
example, mice forget how to
run a maze.
 Drugs that boost LTP help mice
learn a maze more quickly and
with fewer mistakes.
 Summary:
Types of Memory Processing
Memory Retrieval

 Recall: some people, through

practice, visual strategies, or
biological differences, have the ability Lessons from each of
to store and recall thousands of these demonstrations:
words or digits, reproducing them [Link] storage and
years later (“fill-in-the-blank”) recall capacity is
 Recognition: the average person can virtually unlimited
view 2500 new faces and places, and [Link] capacity for
later can notice with 90 percent recognition is greater
accuracy which ones they’ve seen than our capacity for
before (“multiple choice”) recall
 Relearning: some people are unable [Link] can
to form new memories, especially of highlight that
episodes; although they would not memories are there
recall a puzzle-solving lesson, they even if we can’t recall
might still solve the puzzle faster each forming them
lesson
 Relearning Time
as a Measure of Retention
 In the late 1800s, Hermann
Ebbinghaus studied another
measure of memory
functioning: how much time
does it take to relearn and
regain mastery of material?
 He studied the memorization of
nonsense syllables (THB YOX
KVU EHM) so that depth of
processing or prelearning would
not be a factor.
 The more times he rehearsed
out loud on day 1, the less time
he needed to relearn/memorize
the same letters on day 2.
Priming:
Retrieval is Affected by Activating our Associations
 Priming triggers a thread of
associations that bring us to a
concept, just as a spider feels
movement in a web and follows
it to find the bug.
 Our minds work by having one
idea trigger another; this
maintains a flow of thought.

Priming Example: Define the

word “bark.”
Now what is the definition of
“bark”?
The Power of Priming
 Priming has been Study: People primed with
money-related words were
called “invisible less likely to then help
memory” because it another person.
affects us
unconsciously. Study: Priming with an
 In the case of tree image of Santa Claus
“bark” vs. dog “bark,” led kids to share more
the path we follow in candy.
our thoughts can be
channeled by priming. Study: people primed with
 We may have biases a missing child poster then
and associations stored misinterpreted ambiguous
in memory that also adult-child interactions as
influence our choices. kidnapping.
 Context-Dependent Words learned
underwater are better
Memory retrieved underwater.

 Part of the web of associations

of a memory is the context.
What else was going on at the
time we formed the memory?
 We retrieve a memory more
easily when in the same
context as when we formed
the memory.
 Did you forget a psychology
concept? Just sitting down
and opening your book might
bring the memory back.
 State-Dependent
Memory Memories can even be linked
to physiological states:
 Our memories are not just
linked to the external
context in which we
learned them.
 Memories can also be tied
to the emotional state we
were in when we formed
the memory.
 Mood-congruent memory
refers to the tendency to
selectively recall details
that are consistent with
one’s current mood. “I wonder if you’d mind giving
me directions. I’ve never
 This biased memory been sober in this part of
then reinforces our current town before.”
mood!
The Serial Position Effect
Priming and context cues
are not the only factors
which make memory
retrieval selective.

The serial position effect

refers to the tendency,
when learning information
in a long list, to more likely
recall the first items
(primacy effect) and the
last items (recency effect).
In what situation is the
Which words of your national recency effect strongest?
anthem are easiest to recall?
“Forgetfulness is a form of freedom.”
Khalil Gibran

 Jill Price (b. 1965) has

hyperthymesia; she not only recalls
everything, but is unable to forget
anything.
 For Jill, both the important and the
mundane are always accessible,
forming a “running movie” of
images and information that run
simultaneously with current stimuli.
 She has said, “I’ll be talking to
Jill Price, patient “A.J.”
someone and [also] seeing
something else….”
Another possible problem if we were unable to
forget: we might not focus well on current stimuli
because of intrusive memories.
The Brain and the Two-Track Mind:
The Case of Henry Molaison (“H.M.”)
 In 1953, the removal of
H.M.’s hippocampus at
age 27 ended his
seizures, but also ended
his ability to form new
explicit memories.
 H.M. could learn new
skills, procedures,
locations of objects, and
games, but had no
memory of the lessons or
the instructors. Why? H.M., like another such patient,
 H.M. also retained “Jimmy,” could not understand
memories from before why his face looked older than 27
the surgery. What is his in the mirror. Why not?
condition called?
The Two Types of Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia refers
refers to an inability to an inability to form new
to retrieve memory of long-term declarative/
the past. explicit memories.
 Retrograde amnesia can be  H.M. and Jimmy lived with
caused by head injury or no memories of life after
emotional trauma and is surgery.
often temporary.  See also the movie
 It can also be caused by Memento. Most other
more severe brain damage; movie amnesia is retrograde
in that case, it may include amnesia.
anterograde amnesia.
 Storage Decay
 Material encoded into
long term memory will
decay if the memory is
never used, recalled,
and re-stored.
 Decay is LTP in reverse
(or like pruning). Unused  Decay tends to level off.
connections and Memory for both
networks wither while nonsense syllables and
well-used memory Spanish lessons decays
traces are maintained. rapidly.
 However, what hasn’t
decayed quickly tends
to stay intact long-term.
Tip of the Tongue: Retrieval Failure
 Sometimes, the memory itself does not decay. Instead,
what decays are the associations and links that help us
find our way to the stored memory.
 As a result, some stored memories seem just below the
surface: “I know the name...it starts with a B maybe…”
 To prevent retrieval failure when storing and rehearsing
memories, you can build multiple associations, linking
images, rhymes, categories, lists, and cues.
Interference and Positive Transfer
 Another downside of not forgetting is that old and new
memories can interfere with each other, making it difficult
to store new memories and retrieve old ones.
 Occasionally, the opposite happens. In positive transfer, old
information (like algebra) makes it easier to learn related
new information (like calculus).
 Proactive interference occurs when past information
interferes (in a forward-acting way) with learning new
information.
 You have many strong memories of a previous principal,
and this memory makes it difficult to learn the new
principal’s name.
 You had to change email passwords, but you keep typing
the old one and can’t seem to memorize the new one.
Retroactive Interference and Sleep
Retroactive interference occurs
when new stimuli/learning interferes  In one study,
with the storage and retrieval of students who
previously formed memories. studied right before
eight hours of sleep
had better recall
than those who
studied before eight
hours of daily
activities.
 The daily activities
retroactively
interfered with the
morning’s learning.
Motivated Forgetting
 Memory is fallible and changeable,
but can we practice motivated
forgetting, that is, choosing to
forget or to change our memories?
 Sigmund Freud believed that we
Motivated forgetting is
sometimes make an unconscious not common. More often:
decision to bury our anxiety-
provoking memories and hide [Link] is full of errors.
them from conscious awareness. [Link] try not to think
He called this repression. about painful memories.
 New techniques of psychotherapy If they fail to rehearse
and medication interventions may those memories, the
allow us to “erase” (prevent memories can fade.
reconsolidation of) recalled
memories.
Why is our memory full of errors?
 Memory not only gets forgotten,
but it gets constructed (imagined, Ways in which our memory ends up
selected, changed, and rebuilt). being an inaccurate guide to the
 Memories are altered every time past:

we “recall” (actually, reconstruct)

them. Then they are altered again the misinformation
effect
when we reconsolidate the
memory (using working memory imagination inflation
to send them into long term
storage). source amnesia
 Later information alters earlier
memories. déjà vu
 No matter how accurate and
video-like our memory seems, it is implanted memories
full of alterations.
The
TheMisinformation Effect:
Misinformation Effect:
Incorporating misleading information
into one’s memory of an event.
In 1974, Elizabeth Loftus and Those who were asked,
John Palmer asked people to “...when the cars smashed
watch a video of a minor car into each other?” reported
accident. The participants were higher speeds and
then asked, “How fast were cars remembered broken glass
going when they hit each that wasn’t there.
other?”

Actual accident Misremembered accident

Implanted Memories Imagination
In one study, students were told a false story Inflation
that spoiled egg salad had made them ill in Simply picturing an
childhood. As a result, many students became event can make it
[even] less likely to eat egg salad sandwiches seem like a real
in the future. memory.
In a study by Elizabeth Loftus, people were Once we have an
asked to provide details of a incident in inaccurate memory,
childhood when they had been lost in a we tend to add
shopping mall. more imagined
Even though there actually had been no such details, as perhaps
incident, by trying to picture details, most we do for all
people came to believe that the incident had memories.
actually happened. Why does this
happen? Visualizing
Lessons: and actually seeing
[Link] trying to help someone recall a an event activate
memory, you may implant a memory. similar brain areas.
[Link] can’t tell how real a memory is by
how real it feels.
 Source Amnesia/Misattribution
Have you ever discussed If so, your
a childhood memory with memory for the
a family member only to event may have
find that the memory been accurate,
was: but you
from a movie you saw, experienced
or book you read? source amnesia:
from a story someone forgetting where
told you about your the story came
childhood, but they were from, and
kidding? attributing the
from a dream you used source to your
own experience.
to have?
from a sibling’s
experience?
 Déjà vu (“Already seen”)
 Déjà vu refers to the feeling that you’re in a situation
that you’ve seen or have been in before.
 In an experiment in the text, students got this feeling,
because they actually were shown an image previously.
 However, we can feel very certain that we’ve seen a
situation before even when we have not. This can be
seen as source amnesia: a memory (from current
sensory memory) that we misattribute as being from
long term memory.
 Why does this happen? Sometimes our sense of
familiarity and recognition kicks in too soon, and our
brain explains this as being caused by prior experience.
Applying what we’ve learned about memory
Improving Memory to Improve Grades
Learn the material in more than one way, not just by
Ways to rote, but by creating many retrieval cues.
save  Think of examples and connections (meaningful
overall depth).
 Create mnemonics: songs, images, and lists.
studying
time, and Minimize interference with related material or fun
build more activities; study right before sleep or other mindless
activity.
reliable
memory. Have multiple study sessions, spaced further and
further apart after first learning the material.
Spend your study sessions activating your retrieval
cues including context (recalling where you were
when learning the material).
Test yourself in study sessions: 1) to practice doing
retrieval as if taking a test, and 2) to overcome the
overconfidence error: the material seems familiar,
but can you explain it in your own words?