TOPIC
2
Engine design and
operating parameters
Dr. Ali Turab Jafry
Incharge Biofuels and Microfluidics Lab
Internal Combustion Engines
John B. Heywood, 2nd Edition, MIT, 2018
2.1 What do we need from engine?
• Satisfactory performance over its operating range
• Low fuel consumption
• Low noise and emissions
• Low initial cost
• High reliability and durability
Engine performance definitions
• Maximum rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to
develop for short periods of operation.
• Example: A motor rated at 150 kW max power can reach this only
briefly before overheating.
• Normal or nominal rated power. The highest power an engine is
allowed to develop in continuous operation.
• Standard or continuous power (e.g. a generator has a nominal
power of 100 kW, it means it can reliably provide 100 kW for
extended periods.)
• Rated speed. The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated
(nominal) power is developed.
• Example: A motor with a rated speed of 1500 RPM operates
efficiently at this speed under normal load.
2.2 Geometrical properties
Compression ratio
V Vc 8 – 12 for SI
rc d
Vc 12 – 24 for CI
Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke
0.8 – 1.2 Small Engines
Rbs B L
0.5 Large, slow speed
Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius
3 – 4 Small Engines
R l a
5 – 9 Large, slow speed
Stroke and crank radius
L 2a link
Bore (Cylinder Diameter) 🔵
•The internal diameter of a cylinder in an engine.
•Larger bore → More space for fuel-air mixture →
Potential for higher power.
Stroke (Piston Travel Length) 🔄
•The distance a piston moves from top to bottom
inside the cylinder.
•Longer stroke → More displacement → Higher torque at
lower RPM.
Bore-to-Stroke Ratio (B/S Ratio) ⚙️
•Formula: Bore-to-Stroke Ratio = Bore diameter/Stroke
Length
•It determines engine characteristics:
• Over-square (Bore > Stroke) → High RPM,
better power output (e.g., sports cars).
• Under-square (Bore < Stroke) → High torque,
efficient fuel combustion (e.g., trucks, diesel
engines).
• Square (Bore ≈ Stroke) → Balanced
performance (e.g., general-purpose cars).
Cylinder volume at any crank position
Piston at TDC V Vc
Piston at BDC V Vc Vd
At any crank angle V Vc V
B2
V l a s
4
where s is the distance between the crank axis
and the piston pin axis and is given by
12
s a cos l a sin
2 2 2
Cylinder volume at any crank position
V
Vc
1
1 rc 1 R 1 cos
2
R 2 sin 2
Combustion chamber surface area
A Ach Ap B l a s
Cylinder head surface area Ach
B2
Piston crown surface area Ap
4
A Ach Ap
BL
2
R 1 cos R 2 sin 2
Piston speed
Instantaneous piston speed
d s ds d
Sp
dt d dt
d
2 N
dt
ds
S p 2 N
d
12
s a cos l a sin
2 2 2
After differentiation
cos
S p LN sin 1
R sin
2 2
Mean piston speed
S p 2 LN
• Gas flow velocities in the intake manifold and cylinder all scaled
with mean piston speed
• Flow resistance and stresses limit maximum values to within the
range 8 to 15 m/s
• Lower end is typical for large industrial engines
• High end is typical of automotive engines
• For diesel engines, 10 – 14 m/s limited by fuel-air mixing.
2.4 Brake torque and power
• Torque is a work
• Power is a rate at which work is done
• Brake power is a usable power delivered by engine to consumer
Brake torque and power
• Torque is a work
• Power is a rate at which work is done
• Brake power is a usable power delivered by engine to consumer
• Rotor is electromagnetically coupled
to a stator.
• Stator is supported in low friction
bearings.
• Torque exerted on the stator is
measured by balancing the stator
with weights, springs, or pneumatic
means.
2.4 Brake torque and power
• Torque is a work
• Power is a rate at which work is done
• Brake power is a usable power delivered by engine to consumer
• Power delivered by engine is absorbed by dynamometer (Torque
times angular speed) N is the crankshaft rotational speed.
T Fb
P T 2 NT
P kW 2 N rev/s T N.m 10 3
Indicated work per cycle
Wc ,i pdV
Indicated work per cycle
Gross indicated work per cycle Wc ,ig is the work delivered to the piston
over the compression and expansion strokes only (area enclosed by PV curve)
Net indicated work per cycle Wc ,in is the work delivered to the piston
over the entire four-stroke cycle. (area enclosed by the PV cycle + Pump work)
Pumping work W p is the work transfer between piston and cylinder
gases during inlet and exhaust strokes
Pumping work
Work transfer between the piston and the cylinder gases during the
inlet and exhaust strokes is called the pumping work Wp
Pumping work transfer will be
- from piston to gases if the pressure during the intake stroke is less
than the pressure during the exhaust stroke (naturally aspirated
engines)
- from gases to piston if the exhaust stroke pressure is lower than
intake pressure (turbocharged engines)
Pump work to the in-cylinder gases (intake Pump work to the in-cylinder gases (intake
cylinder pressure less than exhaust) cylinder pressure less than exhaust)
Indicated power
Indicated power
The power per cylinder is related to the indicated work per cycle by
Wc ,i N Indicated (4-stroke)
Pi Gross (2 strokes Comp & exp)
nR Net (All 4 strokes)
where nR is the number of crank revolutions for each power stroke per
cylinder.
For four-stroke cycles, nR = 2, for two-stroke cycles, nR = 1
Indicated power differs from brake power by the power absorbed in
overcoming engine friction, driving engine accessories, and (in the case of
gross indicated power) the pumping power.
We will use gross indicated work and power
Terms brake and indicated are used to describe other parameters
Mechanical efficiency
Brake power is the gross indicated power diminished by the friction power
Pb Pig Pf
Friction power is defined as power required to overcome the flow friction,
friction of the bearings, pistons, and other mechanical components of the
engine, and to drive the engine accessories
Friction power may be determined by driving unfired engine with a
dynamometer (Motoring)
Mechanical
efficiency Pb Pf 90% (1800-2400rpm) to
Ratio of brake
m 1 75% at max rated speed.
power to
Pig Pig 0% at idling (brake output
indicted power negligible)
Road-load power
1
Pr CR mv g a CD Av Sv2 Sv
2
Rolling resistance Aerodynamic drag
Power Power
0.012 CR 0.015
0.3 CD 0.5
Mean effective pressure
Mean effective pressure – the ratio of work per cycle and
swept volume:
Wc
mep Units of Force/area
Vd
In terms of power
Pn R
mep
Vd N
In terms of torque
2 nRT
mep
Vd
Engine performance measure compared to Torque (mep removes engine size
consideration)
Mean effective pressure
The constant pressure that would have to exist to do the same
work over Vd as is done by the actual cycle.
Best brake mep values of good engine designs at max torque and
max power are well established and same for range of engine sizes.
• A better measure of engine work than torque Design calculations
• Depends more on engine design than engine size Assume bmep
(normal for that type
• At maximum torque (Best values SI): of engine)
– Naturally aspirated: 1050 to 1250 kPa Get engine
displacement to
– Turbocharged: 1800 to 2400 kPa provide given torque
and power at
– These are about 10% lower at maximum power specified speed
– Two valve per cylinder < Four valve with variable timing
Reference table
Engine Design Example
A four-cylinder automotive spark-ignition engine is being designed to
provide a maximum brake torque of 195 N·m in the mid-speed range (~
4000 rev/min).
Estimate:
- the required engine displacement,
- bore and stroke,
- and the maximum brake power the engine will deliver.
2 nRT
mep
Vd
-Solution
Assumed values: bmep@maxT= 1200 kPa, Rbs= 1,
Sp mean = 17 m/s, bmep@Pmax= 1080 kPa (10% less
than 1200 kPa
Example
Specific fuel consumption
m f
sfc
With units P
m f g/s m f g/h
sfc mg/J or sfc g/kW.h
P kW P kW
Typical values SI - 270 g/kW·h CI - 200 g/kW·h
That is old data. What are these values for modern engines?
Engine efficiency
• Dimensionless parameter
• Relates power output to rate of energy input (second law
efficiency)
• Heating value QHV is required (the chemical energy of fuel)
• Typical values of QHV 42 to 44 MJ/kg
• Measured in a bomb calorimeter which measures the thermal
energy by burning a specific amount of fuel in a given time as
combustion products cool to their original temperature.
Fuel conversion efficiency
f
Wc
Pn R N
P
m f QHV m f n R N QHV m f QHV
In terms of sfc:
1
f
sfc QHV
With units
3600
f
sfcg/kW.h QHV MJ/kg
Air/fuel ratio
m a m f
A F or F A
m f m a
Defining engine operating conditions
SI engine 12 A F 18
CI engines 18 A F 70
Volumetric efficiency
Intake system: air filter, intake duct, throttle plate (SI
engine), intake manifold, intake port, intake valve.
Volumetric efficiency
Ratio of air mass inducted during one induction stroke to the
“potential mass”, i.e. the air mass that would occupy the swept
volume at inlet air density (volume displaced by piston):
mass inducted
v
potential mass
ma N 2m a
ma ma potential mass a,iVd
2 N
ma 2m a
v
a,iVd i,aVd N
Volumetric efficiency
Air density may be taken as:
inlet manifold air density – to measure pumping performance
of inlet port and valve only
atmosphere air density – to measure pumping performance
of entire inlet system
In the latter case volumetric efficiency of turbocharged
engine may be greater than unity
Typical values are 90% for naturally aspirated.
Two stroke engines where intake and exhaust processes
overlap, different parameters are used to quantify cylinder
charging.
2.11 Specific Power, weight and volume
Normalize engine’s max power
engine weight
Specific weight =
rated power
engine volume
Specific volume =
rated power
These show effectiveness of use of engine materials and
packaged the engine components
2.13 Specific emissions
Oxides of Nitrogen NOx, NO and NO2, carbon monoxide CO,
unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), and particulates are important
engine operating characteristics.
Measured in ppm Parts per million or percent by volume.
Specific emissions: Mass flow rates of pollutants per unit
power output:
mass flow rate of pollutant
specific emission = g kW h
power output
For example: m NOx
sNO x
P
Some useful relationships
f ma NQHV F A
For power P
nR
f v NVd QHV a,i F A
For four-stroke engines only P
2
f vVd QHV a,i F A
T
For torque 4
For mean effective pressure mep f v QHV a,i F A
Some useful relationships
For specific power – power per unit piston area
P f v NLQHV a ,i F A
Ap 2
Designer’s success in using available piston area regardless
of cylinder size
with mean piston speed
P f v S p QHV a ,i F A
Ap 4
Use of relationships developed
They show importance to engine performance of:
1. High fuel conversion efficiency (to effectively use the fuel’s chemical
energy)
2. High volumetric efficiency (intake air density to maximize air qty)
3. Increasing the output of a given displacement engine by increasing
the inlet air density
4. Maximum fuel/air ratio that can be usefully burned in the engine.
5. For Power: High mean piston speed consistent with high volumetric
efficiency
Use of normalized performance parameters
Engine ratings indicate rated power, maximum torque and speed at which
it is achieved.
These parameters depend on displacement volume.
To compare engines of different displacements normalized performance
parameters are useful
Use of normalized performance parameters
At maximum rated point: S p 2 LN
• Mean piston speed. Measures comparative success in handling loads
due to inertia and/or engine friction
• Brake mean effective pressure. In naturally aspirated engines bmep is
not stress limited, and reflects the ability to induct air (volumetric
efficiency), effectiveness of air utilization (F/A), and fuel conversion
efficiency. In turbocharged engines bmep indicates the success in
handling higher gas pressure and thermal loading.
• Power per unit piston area. Measures the effectiveness at which the
piston area is used regardless of cylinder size
• Specific weight. Indicates relative economy with which materials are
used
• Specific volume. Indicates relative effectiveness with which engine
space has been utilized
Use of normalized performance parameters
At all speeds with full throttle or with maximum fuel pump settings:
• Brake mean effective pressure. Measures ability to provide high air
flow and use it effectively over the full range
At all regimes:
• Brake specific fuel consumption or fuel conversion efficiency
• Brake specific emissions
Higher B/L ratio, pros and cons
• Pros
– Engine speed N can be increased without increase in mean
piston speed and, consequently, without increase of frictional
losses, both flow and rubbing
– Increased volumetric efficiency due to lower flow velocity and
increased valve area
– Decreased heat transfer to cooling system (prove!)
• Cons
– Increased mass (length and width increases, height is the same)
– Higher probability of knock combustion for SI Engines
– Design consideration (balancing counterweights can meet piston
at BDC)
Higher B/L ratio, pros and cons
Practice HW Problem 2.9
End of topic