NERVOUS SYSTEM

• It is the master controlling and

communicating system of the body which is
responsible for all behaviour that include
thought ,action and [Link] is composed of
the brain,spinal cord and the nerves.
• It sets us apart from other living things
because of its complexity in functioning.
 functions
• It uses its millions of sensory receptors to
monitor changes occurring both inside and
outside the body. The gathered information is
called sensory input.
• It processes and interprets sensory input and
decides what should be done at each moment
—a process called integration
• It causes a response, called motor output, by
activating effector organs.
 Organization of the Nervous system
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity. The CNS is the
integrating and command center of the nervous system. It
interprets sensory input and dictates motor responses based on
past experience, reflexes, and current conditions.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS), the part of the nervous
system outside the CNS, consists mainly of the nerves (bundles
of axons) that extend from the brain and spinal cord. Spinal
nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord; cranial
nerves carry impulses to and from the brain. These peripheral
nerves serve as the communication lines that link all parts of
the body to the CNS.
 The PNS
• has two functional subdivisions
• The sensory, or afferent(“carrying toward”) , division
consists of nerve fibers that convey impulses to the
central nervous system from sensory receptors located
throughout the body. Sensory fibers conveying
impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are
called somatic afferent fibers (soma = body), and those
transmitting impulses from the visceral organs (organs
within the ventral body cavity) are called visceral
afferent fibers. The sensory division keeps the CNS
constantly informed of events going on both inside and
outside the body.
• The motor, or efferent(“carrying away”),
division of the PNS transmits impulses from
the CNS to effector organs, which are the
muscles and glands. These impulses activate
muscles to contract and glands to secrete;
that is, they effect (bring about) a motor
response.
 Cont’
• The somatic nervous system is composed of somatic motor nerve
fibers (axons) that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal
muscles. It is often referred to as the voluntary nervous system
because it allows us to consciously control our skeletal muscles. 2.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of visceral motor
nerve fibers that regulate the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles, and glands. Autonomic means and because we generally
cannot control such activities as the pumping of our heart or the
movement of food through our digestive tract, the ANS is also
referred to as the involuntary nervous system.
• The ANS has two functional subdivisions, the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic, which typically work in opposition to each other
—what one subdivision stimulates, the other inhibits.
 Nervous Tissue
• nervous tissue is made up of just two principal
types of cells:
I. supporting cells, smaller cells that surround
and wrap the more delicate neurons also
called neuroglia or glial cells
II. neurons, the excitable nerve cells that
transmit electrical signals.
 Neuroglia
• There are six types of neuroglia—four in the
CNS and two in the PNS
 Neuroglia in the CNS
• Astrocytes; are the most abundant and most
versatile glial [Link] numerous processes
cling to neurons and their synaptic endings,
and cover nearby capillaries, supporting and
bracing the neurons and anchoring them to
their nutrient supply lines, the blood
capillaries role in making exchanges between
capillaries and [Link] also control the
chemical environment around neurons.
• Microglia: are small ovoid cells with relatively
long “thorny” processes. Protects the CNS
through phagotizing the microorganism and
neuronal debris.
• Ependymal cells : many are ciliated. They line
the central cavities of the brain and the spinal
cord. The beating of their cilia helps to
circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that cushions
the brain and spinal cord.
• the oligodendrocytes :they produce insulating
coverings called myelin sheaths .
 Neuroglia in the PNS
• The two kinds of PNS neuroglia include :
• Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies
located in the peripheral neurons system but
their function is still largely unknown.
• Schwann cells (also called neurolemmocytes)
surround and form myelin sheaths around the
larger nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous
system .
 Neurons
• Also called nerve cells are the structural units
of the nervous system.
• They are highly specialized cells that conduct
messages in the form of nerve impulses from
one part of the body to another. Besides their
ability to conduct nerve impulses, neurons
have some other special characteristics
 characteristics
• They have extreme longevity. Given good
nutrition, neurons can function optimally for a
lifetime (over 100 years).
• They are amitotic. They lack the ability to
divide or form new nerve cells.
• They have high metabolic rate and require
continuous and abundant supplies of oxygen
and glucose. Neurons cannot survive for more
than a few minutes without oxygen.
 Parts of the nerve cell
• Cell Body
• consists of a transparent, spherical nucleus with a nucleolus
surrounded by cytoplasm. Except for centrioles, it contains the usual
organelles. The neuron cell body’s protein- and membrane-making
machinery, consisting of clustered free ribosomes and rough
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This rough ER, referred to as Nissl bodies .
The Golgi apparatus is also well developed and forms an arc or a
complete circle around the nucleus. Mitochondria are scattered among
the other organelles. Microtubules and neurofibrils, bundles of
intermediate filaments (neurofilaments), which are important in
maintaining cell shape and integrity, form a network throughout the
cell body. Most neuron cell bodies are located in the CNS, where they
are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column. Clusters
of cell bodies in the CNS are called nuclei, whereas those that lie along
the nerves in the PNS are called ganglia
Structure of a Typical Large Neuron

Figure 12.4
 Processes
• Armlike processes extend from the cell body
of all neurons. The brain and spinal cord (CNS)
contain both neuron cell bodies and their
processes. The PNS, for the most part, consists
chiefly of neuron processes. Bundles of
neuron processes are called tracts in the CNS
and nerves in the PNS
 Cont’
i. Dendrites:are the main receptive or input regions . They
provide an enormous surface area for receiving signals
from other neurons.
ii. The Axon:The initial region of the axon arises from a
cone-shaped area of the cell body called the axon hillock
and then narrows to form a slender process that is
uniform in diameter for the rest of its length the axon is
very short or absent; in others it is long and accounts for
nearly the entire length of the neuron. long axon is called
a nerve fiber. The knoblike distal endings of the terminal
branches are variously called axon terminals, synaptic
knobs, or boutons .
 Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma
• a whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented .
Myelin protects and electrically insulates
fibers, and it increases the speed of
transmission of nerve impulses. Myelinated
fibers conduct nerve impulses rapidly,
whereas unmyelinated fibers conduct
impulses quite slowly.
 Cont’
• The nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of the
Schwann cell end up as a bulge just external to the
myelin sheath. This portion of the Schwann cell,
which includes the exposed part of its plasma
membrane, is called the neurilemma . Adjacent
Schwann cells along an axon do not touch one
another, so there are gaps in the sheath. These
gaps, called nodes of Ranvier or neurofibril nodes.
Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing
dense collections of myelinated fibers are referred
to as white matter and are primarily fiber tracts.
Gray matter contains mostly nerve cell bodies and
unmyelinated fibers
 Classification of Neurons
i. Structural Classification
i. Multipolar neurons have three or more
processes
ii. Bipolar neurons have two processes—an axon
and a dendrite—that extend from opposite sides
of the cell body.
iii. Unipolar neurons have a single short process
that emerges from the cell body and divides T-
like into proximal and distal branches
Comparison of Structural Classes
of Neurons
Comparison of Structural Classes
of Neurons
 Functional Classification
I. groups neurons according to the direction in which
the nerve impulse travels relative to the central
nervous system
I. Sensory, or afferent, neurons transmit impulses from
sensory receptors in the skin or internal organs toward
or into the central nervous system
II. Motor, or efferent, neurons carry impulses away from
the CNS to the effector organs (muscles and glands) of
the body periphery
III. Interneurons, or association neurons, lie between
motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways and
shuttle signals through CNS pathways where integration
occurs.
Neurons Classified by Function

Figure 12.11
 Neurophysiology
• In the human cell there exists electrical
current across the cell membrane ie inside
and outside the cell.
• There is a slight difference in the number of
positive and negative ions on the two sides of
the cellular plasma membrane such that there
is a potential in current flow. The electrical
current is in form of ions hence called
electrochemical.
• Ions can move along their electrical gradient
that is where they are highly concentrated to
where they are concentration is low,because
it is the movement of chemicals it is called
electrochemical gradient.
 Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)
• The basis of potential in the plasma membrane is due
to Na+, K+, Cl, and protein anions (A) concentration in
the intracellular and extracellular.
• The voltage across the membrane is usually –70 mV
although it varies from -40 to -90 mV.
• In RMP the cell cytoplasm has lower Na⁺ and higher K⁺
than [Link] Na⁺ (cations)in the extracellular is
balance with Cl⁻(anions)while the K⁺In the intracellular
is balanced with negatively charged protein ions.
• Naturally at resting membrane potential the
plasma membrane is impermeable to large
anionic proteins,slightly permeable to Na⁺ and
highly permeable to K⁺as they are open and
Na⁺ are [Link] Na⁺ and K⁺ will leak
along their concentration gradient but at
different rates that is Na⁺ in and K⁺ out.
Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)
 Membrane Potentials: Signals
• Membrane potential changes are produced
by:
– Changes in membrane permeability to ions
– Alterations of ion concentrations across the
membrane
• Types of signals :
– graded potentials
– action potentials
 Graded Potentials
• Short-lived, local changes in membrane
potential that can either depolarize or
hyperpolarize the cell.
• Decrease in intensity with distance ie Can only
travel over short distances
Graded Potentials

Figure 11.10
 Action Potentials (APs)
• A brief but large depolarization signal.
• Action potentials are only generated by muscle cells
and neurons. It is an All-or-none phenomenon – action
potentials either happen completely ie depolarization
reaches a certain level(-59mV) in order to transmit an
impulse, or not at all.
• They do not decrease in strength over distance
• They are the principal means of neural communication
• An action potential in the axon of a neuron is a nerve
impulse
 Phases of the Action Potential
1. Resting state
2. Depolarization
phase
3. Repolarization
phase
4. Hyperpolarizatio
n
• The Na gated channes are stimulated and allow
inward movement of Na causing membrane
depolarization
• As the threshhold potential is reached voltage gated
channels open at -59mV. More Na ions rush into the
cell causing the membrane to move rapidly towards
0mv and then continues to 30mV indicating that the
inside is becomes more positive than the outside.
• NB; if depolarization does not reach theshhold of -
59mV
 Action Potential: Resting State
• Na+ and K+ channels are closed
• Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+
and K+
• Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated
gates
– Activation gates –
closed in the resting
state
– Inactivation gates –
open in the resting
state

Figure 11.12.1
 Action Potential: Depolarization
Phase
• Na+ permeability increases; membrane
potential reverses
• Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed
• Threshold – a critical level of depolarization
(-55 to -50 mV)
• At threshold,
depolarization
becomes
self-generating
 Action Potential: Repolarization
Phase
• Sodium inactivation gates close
• Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to
resting levels
• As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+
gates open
• K+ exits the cell and
internal negativity
of the resting neuron
is restored
Figure 11.12.3
 Action Potential: Hyperpolarization

• Potassium gates remain open, causing an

excessive efflux of K+
• This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the
membrane
• The neuron is
insensitive to
stimulus and
depolarization
during this time
Figure 11.12.4
 Threshold and Action Potentials
• Threshold – membrane is depolarized by 15 to
20 mV
• Established by the total amount of current
flowing through the membrane
• Weak (subthreshold) stimuli are not relayed
into action potentials
• Strong (threshold) stimuli are relayed into
action potentials
• All-or-none phenomenon – action potentials
either happen completely, or not at all
 Refractory period
• This is a brief period in which a local area of an
axon membrane cannot be stimulated or
respond to any stimulus no matter how strong
it is. It can be classified as
– Absolute refactory period
– Relative “ “
 Absolute Refractory Period
• It occurs when the membrane has reached the
threshhold potential and therefore cannot
respond to any stimulus no matter its
intensity.
Absolute Refractory Period
 Relative Refractory Period
• The interval following the absolute refractory
period when:
– Sodium gates are closed
– Potassium gates are open
– Repolarization is occurring
• It causes the membrane to restore to its
membrane potential.
 Conduction Velocities of Axons
• Once an action potential has been generated at a
point it causes local flow of current to the adjacent
regions of the membrane, this stimulates voltage
gated Na channels to open and create a new action
potential.
• The cycle continues producing a wave like
conduction of the action potential from point to
point along the axon.
• In myelinated neurons electrical charge can only
occur at the nodes of Ranvier as the sheath
insulates the cell from current. This type of
conduction is called saltatory Conduction
Saltatory Conduction
 Cont’
• In unmyelinated axon the action potential is
generated at sites adjacent to each other and
this is known as continuous conduction.
 Conduction velocity
• Rate of impulse propagation is determined by:
– Axon diameter – the larger the diameter, the
faster the impulse
– Presence of a myelin sheath – myelination
dramatically increases impulse speed
 Synaptic transmission
• Synapse:A junction that mediates information
transfer from one neuron(presynaptic neuron)
to another neuron (post –synaptic)or to an
effector cell
Synapses
 Types of synapses
• based on mechanism
• Electrical: Are less common and Correspond to
gap junctions found in other cell types.
• it contains protein channels, made of connexin
subunits, that intimately connect the cytoplasm
of adjacent neurons and allow ions and small
molecules to flow directly from one neuron to
the next.
• Chemical:are specialized for release and
reception of chemical neurotransmitters
• It is made up of two parts:
– a knoblike axon terminal of the presynaptic
neuron, which contains many tiny, membrane-
bounded sacs called synaptic vesicles, each
containing thousands of neurotransmitter
molecules
– a neurotransmitter receptor region on the
membrane of a dendrite or the cell body of the
postsynaptic neuron
 Synaptic Cleft
• Fluid-filled space separating the presynaptic
and postsynaptic neurons
• Prevents nerve impulses from directly passing
from one neuron to the next
• Transmission across the synaptic cleft:
– Is a chemical event (as opposed to an electrical
one)
– Ensures unidirectional communication between
neurons
 Cont’
• A synapse forms at any point along the post
synaptic neuron ie :
– Axodendritic – synapses between the axon of one
neuron and the dendrite of another
– Axosomatic – synapses between the axon of one
neuron and the soma of another
– Axoaxonic (axon to axon)
 Information Transfer across
Synaptic Cleft:
• When the nerve impulse reaches the axon
terminal, membrane depolarization opens not
only Na+ channels but voltage-gated Ca2+
channels as well. During the brief time the
Ca2+ channels are open, Ca2+ floods down its
electrochemical gradient into the terminal
from the extracellular fluid.
• The increase of Ca2+ into the axon terminal
acts as an intracellular messenger, directing
synaptic vesicles to fuse with the axon
membrane and empty their contents by
exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. Ca2+ is then
quickly removed from the terminal, either
taken up into the mitochondria or ejected
from the neuron by an active Ca2+ pump.
• The neurotransmitter diffuses across the
synaptic cleft and binds reversibly to specific
protein receptors clustered on the
postsynaptic membrane. When
neurotransmitter binds to the receptor
protein, this receptor changes its three-
dimensional shape. This in turn causes ion
channels to open and creates graded
potentials.
• Depending on the particular neurotransmitter,
the terminating mechanism may be;
– Degradation by enzymes associated with the
postsynaptic membrane or present in the synapse,
as with acetylcholine
– Reuptake by astrocytes or the presynaptic
terminal, where the neurotransmitter is stored or
destroyed by enzymes, as with norepinephrine
– Diffusion away from the synapse
Synaptic Cleft: Information
Transfer
 Postsynaptic Potentials
• The two types of postsynaptic potentials are:
– EPSP – excitatory postsynaptic potentials
– IPSP – inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
 Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials
• Local depolarization of the post synaptic
membrane that brings the neuron closer to
the threshhold of AP. It is generated by
neurotransmitter binding that open
chemically gated channels allowing passage of
Na and K through post synaptic membrane.
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials
 Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs
• Results in hyperpolarization of postsynaptic
neuron and drives the neuron away from
[Link] causes the membrane to become
more permeable to potassium and chloride ions
Leaving the charge on the inner surface negative
and reducing the postsynaptic neuron’s ability to
produce an action potential.
Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs
 Neurotransmitters
• They are means by which neurons
communicate to one another and they have
specific receptors to which they bind.
• Classified chemically and functionally
 Chemical Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Biogenic amines
• Amino acids
• Peptides
• Novel messengers: ATP
 Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine
• First neurotransmitter identified, and best
understood.
• Released at the neuromuscular junction (All
neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle) and by
some neurons of the ANS.
• after release at the presynaptic terminal it
binds to the post synaptic receptors briefly
before being degraded by the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
• It is mainly excitatory
 Neurotransmitters: Biogenic
Amines
• Include:
– Catecholamines – dopamine, norepinephrine (NE),
and epinephrine
– Monoamines/Indolamines – serotonin and
histamine
• Broadly distributed in the brain
 Monoamines/Indolamines
• Serotonin
• It is limited to the CNS mainly the brain
stem,hypothalamus,limbic system and
cerebellum and the spinal cord
• It is mainly inhibitory and is involved in mood
regulation sleep appetite and nausea.
 Cont’
• Histamine
• Mainly in the brain ie the hypothalamus
involved in emotion and regulation of body
temperature. It is also released by mast cells
during inflammation. It is excitatory.
 Catecholamines

• Dopamine
• Found mainly in the substantia nigra of the
midbrain and hypothalamus and it is the
principal NT in the extrapyramidal system
• It is inhibitory or excitatory and regulates
emotions
• Epinephrine
• It is found in various areas in the CNS and also
in the ANS. It is either excitatory or inhibitory.
• Norepinephrine
• It is found in the CNS and PNS.
• It can be inhibitory or excitatory.
 Amino Acids
• Include:
– GABA – Gamma ()-aminobutyric acid ; the
principal inhibitory NT in the brain.
– Glycine: principal inhibitory NT in the spinal cord.
– Glutamate; found in the spinal cord it is major
excitatory NT
• Found only in the CNS
 Peptides
• Include:
– Substance P
– Beta endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins
• Act as natural opiates, reducing our
perception of pain.
 Novel Messengers
• ATP
– a major neurotransmitter in both the CNS and
PNS.
– Produces excitatory or inhibitory responses
depending on receptor type
– Provokes pain sensation
Classification of Neurotransmitters
• By:
– Function
– Mechanism of Action
 Functional Classification of
Neurotransmitters
• Two classifications: excitatory and inhibitory
– Excitatory neurotransmitters cause
depolarizations (e.g., glutamate)
– Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
hyperpolarizations (e.g., GABA and glycine)
 Functional Classification of
Neurotransmitters
• Some neurotransmitters have both excitatory
and inhibitory effects
– Determined by the receptor type of the
postsynaptic neuron
– Example: acetylcholine
• Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions with skeletal
muscle
• Inhibitory in cardiac muscle
 Neurotransmitter Receptor
•
Mechanisms
Direct: neurotransmitters that open ion channels
– Promote rapid responses
– Examples: ACh and amino acids
• Indirect: neurotransmitters that act through
second messengers
– Promote long-lasting effects
– Examples: biogenic amines, peptides, and dissolved
gases
 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• it is formed by the brain and the spinal cord
and it forms the control centre of all activities
in the body.
 Protection of the CNS
• The brain is protected by cranial bones the
spinal cord protected by the vertebral column,
meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.
 Meninges
• Three connective tissue membranes lie
external to the CNS
– dura mater
– arachnoid mater
– pia mater
• Functions of the meninges
– Cover and protect the CNS
– Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Form partitions within the skull
Meninges

Figure 12.23a
 Dura Mater
• Leathery, strong meninx composed of two
fibrous connective tissue layers
• The two layers separate in certain areas and
form dural sinuses.
• It forms the outer layer of the meninges and
inner periosteum of cranial bones.
 Dura Mater
• Three dural septa extend inward and limit
excessive movement of the brain
– Falx cerebri – fold that dips into the longitudinal
fissure between the two hemispheres
– Falx cerebelli – separates the 2 hemispheres of
the cerebellum
– Tentorium cerebelli – horizontal dural fold
extends into the transverse fissure ie separates
the cerebrum from the cerebellum.
Dura Mater

Figure 12.24
 Arachnoid Mater
• The middle layer, which forms a loose brain
covering
• It is separated from the dura mater by the
subdural space which contains lubricating
serousfluid.
• Beneath the arachnoid is a wide subarachnoid
space filled with CSF and large blood vessels
• Arachnoid villi protrude superiorly and permit
CSF to be absorbed into venous blood
Arachnoid Mater

Figure 12.23a
 Pia Mater

• The innermost layer composed of delicate

connective tissue that clings tightly to the brain
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Watery solution similar in composition to blood
plasma produced by choroid plexus in each
ventricle.
Functions
• Forms a liquid cushion that gives buoyancy to the
CNS organs
• Prevents the brain from crushing under its own
weight
• Protects the CNS from blows and other trauma
• Nourishes the brain and carries chemical signals
throughout it
 Composition of CSF
• Water
• Mineral salts
• Proteins eg albumin,globulin
• Glucose
• Urea
• Few leukocytes
 Ventricles of the Brain
• These are hollow chambers with CSF and lined
with ependymal cells
• The ventricles are:
– The paired C-shaped lateral ventriclesie the right
and the left ventricles.
– The third ventricle found in the diencephalon
– The fourth ventricle found in the hindbrain dorsal
to the pons
• Lateral ventricles
• They are located within each hemisphere and
are separated by a thin membrane called
septum pellucidum. Each ventricle
communicates to the third ventricle through
the interventicular foramen or the foramen of
Monro .
 3 ventricle
rd

• It is between the two parts of the thalamus. It

continues to the 4th ventricle through the
cerebral aqueduct.
 4 ventricle
th

• It is a diamond shaped cavity below and behind

the 3rd ventricle. It is between the pons and the
[Link] is continuous below the central
canal of the spinal cord and communicates with
the subarachnoid space through paired lateral
apertures(foramen of Luschka) in its side walls
and a median aperture (foramen of Magendie)in
its roof which connects it to the subarachnoid
space. From the subarachnoid space the CSF
flows back to blood through the arachnoid villi.
Ventricles of the Brain
 The brain
• It consists about 100billion neurons and about
900billion glial cells.
• The average adult man’s brain has a of about
1600 g ; a woman averages 1450 g.
•
• It has 4 major divisions:
– Cerebrum
– Diencephalon- thalamus, hypothalamus and
epithalamus
– Brain stem-midbrain,pons , medulla oblongata.
– Cerebellum
 Cerebrum
• It is the largest and uppermost division of the
brain with the left and right hemispheres. It
has five lobes.
• Frontal
• Parietal
• temporal
• Occipital
• insula found deep within the lateral sulcus and forms its
floor covered by frontal, parietal and temporal lobes.
• It is highly folded to form ridges called convolution or
gyrus and grooves called sulci.
• Deeper sulci forms fissures to separate large regions of
the cortex. They include:
– Longitudinal fissure-deepest groove dividing the two
hemispheres
– Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes
– Parieto-occipital fissure – separates the parietal and
occipital lobes
– Lateral fissure – separates the parietal and temporal lobes
– Transverse fissure-separates the cerebrum from the
cerebellum
The precentral and postcentral gyri border the central sulcus
• Have three basic regions:
– cortex
– white matter
– basal nuclei
 cerebral cortex
• Superficial gray matter; accounts for 40% of
the mass of the brain.
• It enables sensation, communication,
memory, understanding, and voluntary
movements
 Functional Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex
• The three types of functional areas are:
– Motor areas – control voluntary movement
– Sensory areas – conscious awareness of sensation
– Association areas – integrate diverse information
Functional Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex

Figure 12.8a
Functional Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex

Figure 12.8b
 Cerebral Cortex: Motor Areas
• Primary (somatic) motor cortex
• Premotor cortex
• Broca’s area
• Frontal eye field
 Primary Motor Cortex
• Located in the precentral gyrus part in the
frontal lobe of each hemisphere.(brodmann
area 4)
• Composed of pyramidal cells whose axons
make up the corticospinal tracts
• Allows conscious control of precise, skilled,
voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
• Their long axons project to the spinal cord and
are called pyramids.
Primary Motor Cortex

Figure 12.9.1
 Premotor Cortex
• Located anterior to the precentral gyrus in the
frontal lobe.(Brodmann area 6)
• Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned
motor skills eg playing music instrument
• Coordinates simultaneous or sequential
actions
• Involved in the planning of movements eg
passing a hand through a small hole.
 Broca’s Area
– Located anterior to the inferior region of the
premotor area
– Present in one hemisphere (usually the left)
– A motor speech area that directs muscles of the
tongue,throat and lips involved in speech
production.
 Frontal Eye Field
– Located anterior to the premotor cortex and
superior to Broca’s area
– Controls voluntary eye movement
 Sensory Areas
• Primary somatosensory cortex
• Somatosensory association cortex
• Visual and auditory areas
• Olfactory, gustatory, and vestibular cortices
Sensory Areas

Figure 12.8a
 Primary Somatosensory Cortex
• Located in the postcentral gyrus,(brodmann
area 1-3) this area:
– Receives information from the skin and skeletal
muscles for identification of area being stimulated
the ability is called spatial discrimination.
Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Figure 12.9.2
Somatosensory Association Cortex
• Located posterior to the primary
somatosensory cortex
• Integrates sensory information ie Forms
comprehensive understanding of the stimulus.
• Damage to this area the person cannot
recognize without looking.
 Visual Areas
• Primary visual (striate) cortex
– Seen on the extreme posterior tip of the occipital
lobe
– Receives visual information from the retinas
• Visual association area
– Surrounds the primary visual cortex
– Interprets visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and
movement)
 Auditory Areas
• Primary auditory cortex
– Located at the superior margin of the temporal
lobe
– Receives information related to pitch, rhythm, and
loudness
• Auditory association area
– Located posterior to the primary auditory cortex
– Stores memories of sounds and permits
perception of sounds which we hear as
sound,speech music,noise
 Olfactory area
• It is deep in the temporal [Link] provides
conscious awareness of different smells.
 Gustatory area
• Located in the parietal lobe deep to the
temporal lobe. It is used in perception of taste
stimuli
 Association Areas
• Prefrontal cortex
• Language areas
• General (common) interpretation area
• Visceral association area
Association Areas

Figure 12.8a
 Prefrontal Cortex
• Located in the anterior portion of the frontal lobe
• Involved with intellect, cognition(the mental
activities associated with thinking, learning, and
memory) and personality
• Necessary for judgment and reasoning
• Closely linked to the limbic system (emotional
part of the brain)
• Greatly influenced by environment and society as
it develops.
 Language Areas
• Located in a large area surrounding the left (or
language-dominant) lateral sulcus. It is dedicated
to language comprehension and articulation of
words.
• Major parts and functions:
– Wernicke’s area – involved in sounding out unfamiliar
words
– Broca’s area – speech preparation and production
– Lateral prefrontal cortex – language comprehension
and word analysis
– Lateral and ventral temporal lobe – coordinate
auditory and visual aspects of language
 General (Common) Interpretation
Area
• Ill-defined region including parts of the
temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
• Found in one hemisphere, usually the left
• Makes general interpretation of the situation.
 Visceral Association Area
• Located in the cortex of the insula
• Involved in conscious perception of visceral
sensations eg a full bladder,stomach upset etc
 Lateralization of Cortical Function
• Lateralization – each hemisphere has abilities not
shared with its partner ie each perform unique activities
from the other.
• Cerebral dominance – designates the hemisphere
dominant for language
• Over 90% of people the left hemisphere dominates and
are usually right handed. ambidextrous share their
functions equally.
• Left hemisphere – controls language, math, and
logic( relationship between events and the
consequences.
• Right hemisphere – controls visual-spatial skills,
emotion, and artistic skills,free spirited activities.
 Cerebral White Matter
• It is deep to the gray matter of the cortex.
• Consists of deep myelinated fibers and their
tracts
• It is responsible for communication between:
– The cerebral cortex and lower CNS center, and
areas of the cerebrum
 Cerebral White Matter
• Types include(classified depending on the
direction the fibers run)
– Commissures – connect corresponding gray areas of
the two [Link] largest commisure is called
corpus callosum found superior to the lateral
ventricle.
– Association fibers – connect different parts of the
same hemisphere
– Projection fibers – fibers that enter the hemispheres
from lower brain or cord centers and fibers leaving
the cortex to lower areas of the CNS
Fiber Tracts in White Matter

Figure 12.10a
Fiber Tracts in White Matter

Figure 12.10b
 Basal Nuclei
• It is found deep within the cerebral white matter
and is made up of a group of subcortical nuclei
– Caudate nucleus
– Lentiform nucleus – composed of the putamen and
the globus pallidus
– Fibers of internal capsule running between and
through caudate and lentiform nuclei
– It is functionally assossiated with the substantia nigra
of the mid brain and subthalamic nuclei of the
diacephalon
– The form part of the extrapyramidal tracts that
control muscle tone.
Basal Nuclei

Figure 12.11a
Basal Nuclei

Figure 12.11b
 Diencephalon
• Central core of the forebrain located between
the cerebrum and the midbrain.
• Consists of three paired structures – thalamus,
hypothalamus, and epithalamus
• Encloses the third ventricle
Diencephalon

Figure 12.12
 Thalamus
• Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the
superolateral walls of the third ventricle.
• Contains four groups of nuclei – anterior,
ventral, dorsal, and posterior
• Nuclei project and receive fibers from the
cerebral cortex
Thalamus

Figure 12.13a
 Thalamic Function
• Conduction of impulses to the cortex.
• Conduction of motor impulses to the lower
motor centres of the cerebellum
• Memory processing
• Interpretation of sensory impulses
 Hypothalamus
• Located below the thalamus, it caps the
brainstem and forms the inferolateral walls of
the third ventricle. It is connected to other
structures;
• Mammillary bodies
– Small, paired nuclei bulging anteriorly from the
hypothalamus
– Relay station for olfactory pathways
• Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus;
connects to the pituitary gland
• The hypothalamus is the main visceral control
center of the body
Hypothalamic Nuclei

Figure 12.13b
 Hypothalamic Function
• Autonomic control center. The hypothalamus regulates ANS
activity by controlling the activity of centers in the brain stem
and spinal cord. In this role, the hypothalamus influences
blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract
motility, eye pupil size, and many other visceral activities.
• Center for emotional [Link] has the limbic system
nuclei which is involved perception of pleasure, fear, and
rage
• Body temperature regulation. It is the body’s thermostat .
Hypothalamic neurons monitor blood temperature and
receive input from other thermoreceptors in the brain and
body periphery. Accordingly, the hypothalamus initiates
cooling (sweating) or heat-generating mechanisms
(shivering) as needed to maintain a relatively constant body
temperature.
 Cont’
• Regulation of food intake. In response to changing
blood levels of certain nutrients (glucose and perhaps
amino acids) or hormones, the hypothalamus
regulates feelings of hunger and satiety.
• Regulation of water balance and thirst. When body
fluids become too concentrated, hypothalamic
neurons called osmoreceptors are activated. These
neurons excite hypothalamic nuclei that trigger the
release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the
posterior pituitary. ADH causes the kidneys to retain
water. The same conditions also stimulate
hypothalamic neurons in the thirst center, causing us
to feel thirsty and, therefore, to drink more fluids
• Regulation of sleep-wake cycles. Acting with other
brain regions, the hypothalamus helps regulate sleep.
Through the operation of its suprachiasmatic nucleus
(our biological clock), it sets the timing of the sleep
cycle in response to daylight-darkness cues received
from the visual pathways.
• Control of endocrine system [Link] releasing
hormones control the secretion of hormones by the
anterior pituitary gland. Second, its supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei produce the hormones ADH and
oxytocin
 Epithalamus
• Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon;
forms roof of the third ventricle has an
extension of the Pineal gland which secretes
melatonin
– Melatonin – a hormone involved with sleep
regulation, sleep-wake cycles, and mood
Epithalamus

Figure 12.12
 Brain Stem
• it forms the lower part of the brain and
consists of three regions – midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata
• Controls automatic behaviors necessary for
survival
• Provides the pathway for tracts between higher
and lower brain centers
• Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial
nerves
Brain Stem

Figure 12.15c
 Midbrain
• Located between the diencephalon and the
pons
• Midbrain structures include:
– Cerebral peduncles – two bulging structures that
contain descending pyramidal motor tracts
– Cerebral aqueduct – hollow tube that connects
the third and fourth ventricles
– Various nuclei
 Midbrain Nuclei
• Nuclei that control cranial nerves III (oculomotor)
and IV (trochlear) ie
– Corpora quadrigemina – four domelike protrusions of
the dorsal midbrain made up of pairs of Superior
colliculi – visual reflex centers and Inferior
colliculi – auditory relay centers
• Substantia nigra – functionally linked to basal
nuclei releases dopamine for fine muscle control.
• Red nucleus – largest nucleus of the reticular
formation; red nuclei are relay nuclei for some
descending motor pathways
Midbrain Nuclei

Figure 12.16a
 Pons
• Bulging brainstem region between the midbrain
and the medulla oblongata
• Forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth
ventricle
• Fibers of the pons connect higher brain centers
and the spinal cord
• It has pontine nucleus that relay impulses
between the motor cortex and the cerebellum
• Origin of cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VI
(abducens), and VII (facial
Pons

Figure 12.16b
 Medulla Oblongata
• Most inferior part of the brain stem
• Along with the pons, forms the ventral wall of the
fourth ventricle
• Contains a choroid plexus on the ventral wall of
the fourth ventricle
• On the ventral part it has two longitudinal ridges
formed by corticospinal tracts descending from
the motor cortex called Pyramids
• At one point the corticospinal tracts crossover
this is called Decussation of the pyramids.
Medulla Oblongata

Figure 12.16c
 Medulla Nuclei
• Inferior olivary nuclei – gray matter that relays sensory
information
• Cranial nervesVII(vestibulocochlear)
IX(glossopharyngeal) X(vagus), XI(accessory), and
XII(hypoglossal) are associated with the medulla
• It forms the following centres for reflexes ie
– cardiovascular centre which controls rate and force of
heart and BP
– Respiratory centre that control rate and depth of
breathing
– Other centres include vomiting, hiccuping,swallowing,
coughing and sneezing
 The Cerebellum
• Located dorsal to the pons and medulla
• Protrudes under the occipital lobes of the
cerebrum
• It is the second largest part of the brain and
makes up 11% of the brain’s mass
• Its cortex is made up of grey matter while the
inside is made up of white matter called arbor
vitae.
cerebellum

Figure 12.12
 Cerebellar Peduncles
• It is connected with three paired fiber tracts
that connect the cerebellum to the brain stem
called peduncles. They include:
– Superior peduncles connect the cerebellum to the
midbrain
– Middle peduncles connect the pons to the
cerebellum
– Inferior peduncles connect the medulla to the
cerebellum
 Cerebellar Processing
• Cerebellum receives impulses of the intent to
initiate voluntary muscle contraction
• Proprioceptors and visual signals “inform” the
cerebellum of the body’s condition
• Cerebellar cortex calculates the best way to
perform a movement
• A “blueprint” of coordinated movement is
sent to the cerebral motor cortex
 Cerebellar Cognitive Function
• Plays a role in language and problem solving
• Recognizes and predicts sequences of events
 Functional Brain System
• Networks of neurons working together and
cannot be localized to specific areas of the
brain.
• The two systems are:
– Limbic system
– Reticular formation
 Limbic System
• Structures located on the medial aspects of cerebral
hemispheres and diencephalon
• Includes the rhinencephalon, cingulate gyrus,dentate
gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus,amygdala,
hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus
• Parts especially important in emotions:
– Amygdala – deals with anger, danger, and fear responses
– Cingulate gyrus – plays a role in expressing emotions via
gestures, and resolves mental conflict
• Puts emotional responses to odors – e.g., skunks smell
bad
Limbic System

Figure 12.18
 Limbic System: Emotion and
Cognition
• The limbic system interacts with the
prefrontal lobes, therefore:
– One can react emotionally to conscious
understandings
– One is consciously aware of emotion in one’s life
• Hippocampal structures – convert new
information into long-term memories
 Reticular Formation
• Composed of three broad columns along the
length of the brain stem
– Raphe nuclei
– Medial (large cell) group
– Lateral (small cell) group
• Has axonal connections with hypothalamus,
thalamus, cerebellum, and spinal cord
Reticular Formation

Figure 12.19
 Reticular Formation: RAS and
Motor Function
• RAS – reticular activating system
– Sends impulses to the cerebral cortex to keep it
conscious and alert
– Filters out repetitive and weak stimuli
• Motor function
– Helps control coarse motor movements
– Autonomic centers regulate visceral motor
functions – e.g., vasomotor, cardiac, and
respiratory centers
The Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• PNS – all neural structures outside the brain
and spinal cord
• Includes sensory receptors, peripheral nerves,
associated ganglia, and motor endings
• Provides links to and from the external
environment
 Sensory Receptors
• Structures specialized to respond to stimuli
• Activation of sensory receptors results in
depolarizations that trigger impulses to the
CNS
• The realization of these stimuli, sensation and
perception, occur in the brain
Receptor Classification by Stimulus
Type
• Mechanoreceptors – respond to touch,
pressure, vibration, stretch, and itch
• Thermoreceptors – sensitive to changes in
temperature
• Photoreceptors – respond to light energy (e.g.,
retina)
• Chemoreceptors – respond to chemicals (e.g.,
smell, taste, changes in blood chemistry)
• Nociceptors – sensitive to pain-causing stimuli
 Nerve
• Nerve – cordlike organ of the PNS consisting
of peripheral axons enclosed by connective
tissue
Structure of a Nerve

Figure 13.3b
 Classification of Nerves
• Sensory and motor divisions
• Sensory (afferent) – carry impulse to the CNS
• Motor (efferent) – carry impulses from CNS
• Mixed – sensory and motor fibers carry
impulses to and from CNS; most common type
of nerve
 Cranial Nerves
• Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from the
brain and carry impulses to and from the
brain.
• They have sensory, motor, or both sensory
and motor functions
• Each nerve is identified by a number (I
through XII) and a name that suggest their
function and distribution.
Cranial Nerves

Figure 13.5a
Summary of Function of Cranial
Nerves

Figure 13.5b
 Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory
• Arises from the olfactory epithelium in the
nasal mucosa.
• Fibers run through the olfactory bulb and
terminate in the primary olfactory cortex
• Functions solely by carrying afferent impulses
for the sense of smell. It is a sensory nerve.
Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory

Figure I from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve II: Optic
• Has receptors and cell bodies in the retina of the
eye
• Optic nerves pass through the optic canals and
converge at the optic chiasm
• They continue to the thalamus where they
synapse
• From there, the optic radiation fibers run to the
visual cortex
• Functions solely by carrying afferent impulses for
vision and are sensory.
Cranial Nerve II: Optic

Figure II Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor
• Fibers extend from the ventral midbrain, pass
through the superior orbital fissure, and go to
the extrinsic eye muscles
• Functions in raising the eyelid, directing the
eyeball, constricting the iris, and controlling
lens shape.
• It is motor.
Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor

Figure III from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear
• Fibers emerge from the dorsal midbrain and
enter the orbits via the superior orbital
fissures; innervate the superior oblique
muscle
• Primarily a motor nerve that directs the
eyeball
• It is motor.
Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear

Figure IV from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal
• Composed of three divisions: ophthalmic (V1),
maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3)
• Fibers run from the face to the pons via the
superior orbital fissure (V1), the foramen rotundum
(V2), and the foramen ovale (V3)
• Conveys sensory impulses from various areas of the
face (V1) and (V2), and supplies motor fibers (V3) for
mastication
• Both sensory and motor
Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal

Figure V from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve VI: Abducens
• Fibers leave the inferior pons and enter the orbit
via the superior orbital fissure
• Primarily a motor nerve innervating the lateral
rectus muscle turning the eyeball laterally
• It is motor

Figure VI from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve VII: Facial
• Fibers leave the pons and travel to the lateral
aspect of the face
• Mixed nerve with five major branches ie
temporal,zygomatic,buccal,mandibular and
cervical.
• Motor functions include facial expression, and
the transmittal of autonomic impulses to lacrimal
and salivary glands
• Sensory function is taste from the anterior two-
thirds of the tongue
Cranial Nerve VII: Facial

Figure VII from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve VIII:
Vestibulocochlear
• Fibers arise from the hearing and equilibrium
apparatus of the inner ear and enter the
brainstem at the pons-medulla border
• Two divisions – cochlear (hearing) and
vestibular (balance)
• Functions are solely sensory – equilibrium and
hearing
Cranial Nerve VIII:
Vestibulocochlear

Figure VIII from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal
• Fibers emerge from the medulla, leave the skull
via the jugular foramen, and run to the throat
• Nerve IX is a mixed nerve with motor and sensory
functions
• Motor – innervates part of the tongue and
pharynx, and provides motor fibers to the parotid
salivary gland
• Sensory – fibers conduct taste and general
sensory impulses from the tongue and pharynx
Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal

Figure IX from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve X: Vagus
• The only cranial nerve that extends beyond
the head and neck
• Fibers emerge from the medulla via the
jugular foramen
• The vagus is a mixed nerve
• Most motor fibers are parasympathetic fibers
to the heart, lungs, and visceral organs
• Its sensory function is in taste
Cranial Nerve X: Vagus

Figure X from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory
• The accessory nerve leaves the cranium via
the jugular foramen
• Primarily a motor nerve
– Supplies fibers to the larynx, pharynx, and soft
palate
– Innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid,
which move the head and neck
Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory

Figure XI from Table 13.2

 Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal
• Fibers arise from the medulla and exit the skull
via the hypoglossal canal
• Innervates both extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of
the tongue, which contribute to swallowing and
speech
Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal

Figure XII from Table 13.2

 summary
• “On occasion, our trusty truck acts funny—
very good vehicle anyhow.”-cranial nerves
• Some say marry money, but my brother
believes (it’s) bad business (to) marry
money.”primary function
 Spinal Nerves
• Thirty-one pairs of mixed nerves arise from the
spinal cord and supply all parts of the body
except the head.
• All nerves are mixed nerves as they carry both
sensory and motor impulses.
• They are named according to their point of issue
– 8 cervical (C1-C8)
– 12 thoracic (T1-T12)
– 5 Lumbar (L1-L5)
– 5 Sacral (S1-S5)
– 1 Coccygeal (C0)
Spinal Nerves

Figure 13.6
 Spinal Nerves: Roots
• Each spinal nerve connects to the spinal cord via
two medial roots ie
– Ventral roots arise from the anterior horn and
contain motor (efferent) fibersto the skeletal
muscles and the glands
– Dorsal roots contain sensory fibers carrying impulses
from the peripheral located receptors to the spinal
cord.
• The ventral and dorsal roots pass laterally from the
cord and are joined just distally to form spinal nerves
before emerging from the vertebral column.
• The spinal nerve is short (1-2cms) it divides into dorsal
ramus(serves the muscles and skin of the posterior
body trunk and ventral ramus(serves the limbs) and
meningeal branch(serves the meninges and blood
vessels within the meninges)
• Rami communicantes connect to the base of the
ventral ramus Lead to the sympathetic chain ganglia
• The ventral rami branch and join one another lateral to
the vertebral column to form a complex network of
nerves (interlacing nerves)called nerve plexuses except
for T2 –T12.
• There are four such plexus
– Cervical plexus
– Brachial plexus
– Lumbar plexus
– Sacral plexus
– From the plexus individual nerves emerge that serve a
particular region of the body.
– N/B only ventral rami form plexus.
Spinal Nerves: Roots

Figure 13.7a
 Spinal Nerve Innervation: Back,
Anterolateral Thorax, and
• Abdominal
The back is innervated Wallrami via several
by dorsal
branches
• The thorax is innervated by ventral rami T1-T12 arranged
in simple, segmented pattern as intercostal nerves.
• Intercostal nerves supply muscles of the ribs,
anterolateral thorax, and abdominal wall
Spinal Nerve Innervation: Back,
Anterolateral Thorax, and
Abdominal Wall

Figure 13.7b
 Cervical Plexus
• The cervical plexus is formed by ventral rami
of C1-C4
• Most branches are cutaneous nerves of the
neck, ear, back of head, and shoulders
• The most important nerve of this plexus is the
phrenic nerve which is the major motor and
sensory nerve of the diaphragm
Cervical Plexus

Figure 13.8
 Brachial Plexus
• Formed by C5-C8 and T1 (C4 and T2 may also
contribute to this plexus)
• It gives rise to the nerves that innervate the
upper limb
Brachial Plexus

Figure 13.9a
 Lumbar Plexus
• Arises from L1-L4 and innervates the thigh,
abdominal wall, and psoas muscle
• The major nerves are the femoral and the
obturator
Lumbar Plexus

Figure 13.10
 Sacral Plexus
• Arises from L4-S4 and serves the buttock, lower
limb, pelvic structures, and the perineum
• The major nerve is the sciatic, the longest and
thickest nerve of the body
• The sciatic is actually composed of two
nerves: the tibial and the common fibular
(peroneal) nerves
Sacral Plexus

Figure 13.11
 Reflexes
• A reflex is a rapid, predictable motor response
to a stimulus
• Reflexes may:
– Be inborn (intrinsic) or learned (acquired)
– Involve only peripheral nerves and the spinal cord
– Involve higher brain centers as well
 Reflex Arc
• There are five components of a reflex arc
– Receptor – site of stimulus
– Sensory neuron – transmits the afferent impulse
to the CNS
– Integration center – either monosynaptic or
polysynaptic region within the CNS
– Motor neuron – conducts efferent impulses from
the integration center to an effector
– Effector – muscle fiber or gland that responds to
the efferent impulse
 Reflex Arc

Spinal cord
(in cross-section)
Stimulus
2 Sensory neuron 3 Integration
1 Receptor center
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector Interneuron
Skin

Figure 13.14
The Autonomic Nervous System
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• The ANS consists of motor neurons that:

– Innervate smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
– Make adjustments to ensure optimal support for
body activities
– Have viscera as most of their effectors
 Divisions of the ANS

• The two divisions of the ANS are the

sympathetic and parasympathetic
• The sympathetic mobilizes the body during
extreme situations
• The parasympathetic performs maintenance
activities and conserves body energy
• The two divisions counterbalance each other’s
activity
Anatomy of ANS

Figure 14.3
 Parasympathetic Division
• it can be called craniosacral division because
its preganglionic neurons have their cell
bodies in the brainstem or lateral gray matter
of the spinal cord. The long preganglionic
neuron synapse with the short post ganglionic
neuron just close to the effector organs.
• All fibers release acetylcholine hence are
called cholinergic fibres.
Parasympathetic Division Outflow

Figure 14.4
 Cranial outflow
• This is associated with cranial nerves
III,VII,IX,X.
• As the vagus nerve passes through the thorax
it forms cardiac, pulmonary,esophageal and
aortic plexuses.
 Sacral outflow
• It arises from the S2-S4 and its pelvic
splanchnic nerves give rise to hypogastric
plexus serving the pelvic organs and the large
intestines.
 Parasympathetic Division Outflow

Cranial Outflow Cranial Nerve Ganglion Effector Organ(s)

Oculomotor (III) Ciliary Eye
Facial (VII) Pterygopalatine Salivary, nasal, and
Submandibular lacrimal glands
Glossopharyngeal Otic Parotid salivary glands
(IX)
Vagus (X) Located within the walls Heart, lungs, and most
of target organs visceral organs
Sacral Outflow S2-S4 Located withinthewalls Large intestine, urinary
of the target organs bladder, ureters, and
reproduc tive organs
 Role of the Parasympathetic
Division
• Concerned with keeping body energy use low
• Involves the D activities – digestion, defecation,
and diuresis
• Its activity is illustrated in a person who relaxes
after a meal
– Blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates are
low
– Gastrointestinal tract activity is high
– The skin is warm and the pupils are constricted
 Sympathetic Division
• It is also called thoracolumbar division as its preganglionic neurons
arise from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord ie T1-
L2.
• It supplies visceral organs and also blood vessels and sweatgland
located superficially.
• It has short preganglionic neurons which release acetylcholine and
long post ganglionic neurons which produce norepinephrine hence
called adrenergic fibers.
• Preganglionic fibers pass through the white rami communicantes
and synapse in the paravertebral ganglia
• Postganglionic fibers innervate the numerous organs of the body
• The ganglia is formed a few cms off the CNS forming a sympathetic
chain
• It has gray and white communicantes
Sympathetic Division

Figure 15.4a
Sympathetic Outflow

Figure 14.5
 Sympathetic Trunks and Pathways
• Preganglionic fibers pass through white rami
communicantes and enter paravertebral
ganglia
• Postganglionic axons enter the ventral rami via
the gray rami communicantes
• Rami communicantes are associated only with
the sympathetic division
• The paravertebral ganglia form part of the
sympathetic chain
• Typically there are 23 ganglia – 3 cervical,
11 thoracic, 4 lumbar, 4 sacral, and 1 coccygeal
Sympathetic Trunks and Pathways

Figure 14.6a
 Sympathetic Trunks and Pathways
• A pregangiolonic fiber follows one of three
pathways upon entering the paravertebral
ganglia:
– Synapse with the ganglionic neuron within the same
ganglion
– Ascend or descend the
sympathetic chain to
synapse in another
chain ganglion
– Pass through the chain
ganglion and emerge
without synapsing Figure 14.6b
 Role of the Sympathetic Division
• The sympathetic division is the “fight-or-flight”
system
• Involves E activities – exercise, excitement,
emergency, and embarrassment
• Promotes adjustments during exercise – blood flow
to organs is reduced, flow to muscles is increased
• Its activity is illustrated by a person who is
threatened
– Heart rate increases, and breathing is rapid and deep
– The skin is cold and sweaty, and the pupils dilate
 Assignment
• Differentiate between sympathetic and
parasympathetic division.(20mks)
 Anatomy of ANS

Division Origin of Fibers Length of Fibers Location of

Ganglia
Sympathetic Thoracolumbar region Short preganglionic and Close to the spinal
of the spinal cord long postganglionic cord
Parasympathetic Brain and sacral spinal Long preganglionic and In the visceral
cord short postganglionic effector organs
 Visceral Reflexes
• Visceral reflexes
have the same
elements as
somatic reflexes
• They are always
polysynaptic
pathways
• Afferent fibers
are found in
spinal and
autonomic nerves
Figure 14.7
 Neurotransmitters and Receptors
• Acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE)
are the two major neurotransmitters of the ANS
• ACh is released by all preganglionic axons and
all parasympathetic postganglionic axons
• Cholinergic fibers – ACh-releasing fibers
• Adrenergic fibers – sympathetic postganglionic
axons that release NE
• Neurotransmitter effects can be excitatory or
inhibitory depending upon the receptor type
 Cholinergic Receptors

• The two types of receptors that bind ACh are

nicotinic and muscarinic
• These are named after drugs that bind them and
mimic ACh effects
 Nicotinic Receptors

• Nicotinic receptors are found on:

– Motor end plates (somatic targets)
– All ganglionic neurons of both sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
– The hormone-producing cells of the adrenal medulla
• The effect of ACh binding to nicotinic receptors
is always stimulatory
 Muscarinic Receptors

• Muscarinic receptors occur on all effector cells

stimulated by postganglionic cholinergic fibers
• The effect of ACh binding:
– Can be either inhibitory or excitatory
– Depends on the receptor type of the target organ
 Adrenergic Receptors
• The two types of adrenergic receptors are alpha
and beta
• Each type has two or three subclasses (1, 2,
1, 2 , 3)
• Effects of NE binding to:
–  receptors is generally stimulatory
–  receptors is generally inhibitory
• A notable exception – NE binding to  receptors
of the heart is stimulatory
 Interactions of the Autonomic
Divisions
• Most visceral organs are innervated by both
sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers
• This results in dynamic antagonisms that
precisely control visceral activity
• Sympathetic fibers increase heart and respiratory
rates, and inhibit digestion and elimination
• Parasympathetic fibers decrease heart and
respiratory rates, and allow for digestion and the
discarding of wastes
 Sympathetic Tone
• The sympathetic division controls blood
pressure and keeps the blood vessels in a
continual state of partial constriction
• This sympathetic tone (vasomotor tone):
– Constricts blood vessels and causes blood pressure
to rise as needed
– Prompts vessels to dilate if blood pressure is to be
decreased
• Alpha-blocker drugs interfere with vasomotor
fibers and are used to treat hypertension
 Parasympathetic Tone

• Parasympathetic tone:
– Slows the heart
– Dictates normal activity levels of the digestive and
urinary systems
• The sympathetic division can override these
effects during times of stress
• Drugs that block parasympathetic responses
increase heart rate and block fecal and urinary
retention
 Cooperative Effects

• ANS cooperation is best seen in control of the

external genitalia
• Parasympathetic fibers cause vasodilation and are
responsible for erection of the penis and clitoris
• Sympathetic fibers cause ejaculation of semen in
males and reflex peristalsis in females
 Unique Roles of the Sympathetic
Division
• Regulates many functions not subject to
parasympathetic influence
• These include the activity of the adrenal
medulla, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles,
kidneys, and most blood vessels
• The sympathetic division controls:
– Thermoregulatory responses to heat
– Release of renin from the kidneys
– Metabolic effects
 Thermoregulatory Responses to
Heat
• Applying heat to the skin causes reflex dilation
of blood vessels
• Systemic body temperature elevation results in
widespread dilation of blood vessels
• This dilation brings warm blood to the surface
and activates sweat glands to cool the body
• When temperature falls, blood vessels constrict
and blood is retained in deeper vital organs
 Release of Renin

• Sympathetic impulses activate the kidneys to

release renin
• Renin is an enzyme that promotes increased
blood pressure
 Metabolic Effects

• The sympathetic division promotes metabolic

effects that are not reversed by the
parasympathetic division
– Increases the metabolic rate of body cells
– Raises blood glucose levels
– Mobilizes fat as a food source
– Stimulates the reticular activating system (RAS) of
the brain, increasing mental alertness