WACHEMO UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electro-Mechanical Engineering

Material Science and Engineering

Compiled by Dagim Asegid ([Link]. MEng.), Oct.. 2023

Chapter Two

Imperfections in Solids
 Chapter Two
2.6. Introduction

 Thus so far it has been tacitly assumed that perfect order exists throughout crystalline
materials on an atomic scale.

 However, such an idealized solid does not exist; all contain large numbers of various defects
or imperfections.
 Chapter Two
2.6. Introduction

 Importance of Defects

i. To influence the structural properties of a material

 Strength by solution hardening

 Dissolving single point impurities in a material in order to change the materials

property of how to deform.

 Surface carburizing, or case hardening

 Chapter Two
2.6. Introduction

 Importance of Defects

ii. To change the electrical properties of a material

 Doping

 Controlling the number and type of charge carriers in a system by controlling doping
of donor and acceptors in a system.
 Chapter Two
2.6. Introduction

 Importance of Defects

ii. To control the motion of ions through out the charge

 In fuel cells

 Controlling the formation of vacant space throughout the lattice in order to make the
migration of atoms from one side to the other ease.

 Solid-oxide fuel cells work because of the large concentrations of oxygen vacancies
present: the vacancies provide fast ion conduction pathways.
 Chapter Two
2.6. Introduction

 By “crystalline defect” is meant a lattice irregularity having one or more of its dimensions on
the order of an atomic diameter.
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

Imperfection's

Point Defect (0D) Linear Defect (1D) Interfacial Defect (2D)

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

Point Defects

Metals Ceramics Impurities

Vacancy Frenkel Substitutional

Self interstitial Schottky Interstitial

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

i. Vacancy

 Vacant lattice site – Missing atom

 Thermodynamically impossible to create vacancy free solid

 It can be explained by

 High temperature favors the formation of more vacancy

 Decrease density
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

ii. Self interstitial

 Extra atom at interstitial location

 Large distortion will be created

 Formation is highly improbable

 Increase density
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

iii. Frenkel Defect

 Created when cation leaves its original place in the lattice structure to create a
vacancy while occupying another interstitial position within the solid crystal.

 This defect occurs only when cations are smaller when compared to the anions

 No significant impact on the density of the solid.

 Both electrical neutrality and stoichiometry are maintained

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

iii. Frenkel Defect

 The main conditions for Frenkel defects are

 Coordination number should be low

 Size of the anion should be bigger than the cation

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

iv. Schottky defect

 Caused when equal numbers of cations and anions are missing from the lattice.

 There is a very small difference in size between cation and anion.

 Cation and anion both leave the solid crystal.

 Generally two vacancies are formed.

 As for the density of the solid it decreases considerably.

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

iv. Schottky defect

 Both electrical neutrality and stoichiometry maintained

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

V. Substitutional Defect

 The original atom in the lattice site of a crystalline solid is replaced by a different
type of atom.

 Foreign atom should occupy the lattice site only and not the interstitial position.

 Substitutional defects can be found in brass, where zinc atoms replace copper
atoms.
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

 The main features of substitutional defect

 If the foreign atom is smaller in size as compared to the original atom of the solid,
the neighboring atoms will remain in tensile stress.

 If the foreign atom is larger in size as compared to the original atom of the solid,
the neighboring atoms will remain in compressive stress.

 So, presence of foreign atom may distort the original lattice structure.
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

vi. Interstitial Defect

 An interstitial defect occurs when an atom takes the interstitial position of the
lattice structure.

 This interstitial atom may be of the same crystal or of a foreign material.

 During iron to steel production, carbon atoms occupy interstitial positions of the
iron crystal.
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.1. Point Defect

vi. Interstitial Defect

 Self-Interstitial Defect—occurs when atom of the same crystalline solid occupies

the interstitial position leaving its original lattice site.

 Interstitial Defect—occurs when a foreign atom occupies the interstitial position.

 Chapter Two
3.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.2. Linear Defect

 A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms

are misaligned.

 Strongly influence the properties of material.

 Opposite dislocations can be cancelled out.

 It can be edge or screw dislocation.

 Chapter Two
3.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.2. Linear Defect

i. Edge Dislocation

a linear defect that centers around the line that is defined along the end of the extra
half-plane of atoms.

 sometimes termed the dislocation line.

 Chapter Two
3.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.2. Linear Defect

i. Edge Dislocation

 The line separating the half plane from the absent half plane is called dislocation
line.

 Lattice distortion will present around the line.

 Burger vector is perpendicular to the dislocation line.

 Chapter Two
3.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.2. Linear Defect

i. Edge Dislocation
 Chapter Two
3.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.2. Linear Defect

ii. Screw Dislocation

 Formed by a shear stress that is applied to produce the distortion.

 Upper front region of the crystal is shifted one atomic distance to the right relative
to the bottom portion.

 Burger vector is parallel to the dislocation line.

 Helical path is traced by atoms around the dislocation.

 Chapter Two
3.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.2. Linear Defect

ii. Screw Dislocation

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

Interfacial Defects

External Surface Grain Boundary Twin Boundary

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

i. External surface

 A surface along which the periodicity of crystal structure terminates.

 This external free surface is a defect because the atom does not have the type of
bonding if it were in the bulk.
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

i. External surface

 Leads to the breaking of surface atom bond.

 Since surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors,
therefore they will be in higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions.
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

ii. Grain Boundary

 Boundary separating two grains/crystals

 The region of mismatch leading to transition from one orientation to another.

 Result in different crystallographic orientation in the grain.

 It can be low angle or high angle grain boundary depending on the angle of
misalignment.
 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

ii. Grain Boundary

 Regions of high chemical activity

 Impurities tend to segregate at this boundary

 Grains coarsening takes place to reduce energy.

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

ii. Grain Boundary

 Tilt Boundary: formed by edge dislocations aligning up in a line.

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

ii. Grain Boundary

 Twist Boundary: formed by screw dislocation.

 Has angle of misorientation parallel to the boundary.

 Chapter Two
2.7. Classifications of Imperfection’s

2.7.3. Interfacial Defect

ii. Twin Boundary

 Special type of grain boundary with mirror symmetry about it.

 Formed either by:

 Stress (mechanical twin)

 Annealing (annealing twin)

 Occurs in defined plane and direction depending on crystal structure.

 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

 The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its

response or deformation to an applied load or force.
 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

 Factors to be considered while determining the mechanical properties of materials

include:

 Nature of the applied load (tensile, compressive, bending, shear,

torsional)

 Environmental condition (temperature), and

 Duration of the applied force (time)

 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

 Important mechanical properties of materials include:

 strength,

 hardness,

 ductility, and

 stiffness.
 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

i. Tensile Strength

 Tensile strength can be defined as the maximum stress that a material can bear before
breaking when it is allowed to be stretched or pulled.

 It can be defined as: σ = Ft/A, Where,

σ is the tensile stress

 Ft is the tensile force acting

 A is the area
 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

ii. Compressive Strength

 Compressive strength is defined as the ability of material to resist the direct pressure of
applied compression force.

 It can be defined as: σ = Fc/A, Where,

σ is the tensile stress

 Fc is the compressive force acting

 A is the area
 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except that
the force is compressive and the specimen contracts along the direction of the
stress.
 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

iii. Creep strength

 Creep resistance of a material determines the capability of the material to with

stand the highest possible operating loads at elevated temperature.

 The high temperature creep resistance property of material is a significant index to

determine the elevated temperature performance of the material or part.
 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

iii. Creep strength

 Creep resistant materials are used in machine parts and facilities operated at higher
temperature such as:

 Automotive engine parts, and

 Brake system components.

 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

iii. Creep strength

 Testing creep strength of a material:

 Chapter Two
2.8. Mechanical Properties of Materials

2.8.1. What is Mechanical property of Materials?

iv. Torsional strength

 Torsional strength can be defined as the ability of a material or structure to resist a

twisting force with out deformation along the longitudinal direction.

 Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal axis of one end
of the member relative to the other end.
Chapter Two

End Of Chapter Two

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