RADIATION

HEAT TRANSFER

1
Thermal radiation is that electromagnetic radiation
emitted by a body as a result of its temperature.
Unlike conduction and convection, it requires no
matter for the transfer. All electromagnetic
radiations are propagated at the speed of light, given
as the product of wavelength and frequency.
c = λν
1Å (angstrom) = 10-8 cm.
A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is shown in
figchp11\[Link]
Thermal radiation lies in the range about 0.1 to
100μm. The visible light is between 0.35 to 0.75
μm. 2
The modern theory views thermal radiation as the
propagation of a collection of particles called
photons or quanta with quantum of energy given by
E = hν h=6.625x10-34 J.s (Planck’s
constant)
Using E = mc2 = hν one can find the momentum of a
photon as
Momentum = mc = hν/c
Quantum – statistical thermodynamics gives the
energy density of radiation per unit volume and per
5
unit 8hclength
wave  as
u  hc / kT k Boltzmann cons tan t
e 1
1.38066x10 23 J / molecule.K
3
When the above is integrated over all wavelengths it
gives

Eb T 4

The above is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law, E b is

the energy(W) radiated per unit time and per unit
area by the ideal radiator, and σ is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant given by
σ = 5.669x10-8 W/m2.K4

4
Radiation Properties
When radiant energy is incident on a surface (called
irradiation), part of the radiation is reflected, part is
absorbed, and part is transmitted as shown in
figchp11\[Link] .
For irradiation given by G
G = αG +ρG + τG or α +ρ+τ =1
α = Absorptivity ρ = Reflectivity τ = Transmissivity
For solid bodies that do not transmit
α +ρ =1
Two types of reflections:
Specular- incidence and reflection angles are 5
equal.
Diffuse – incident beam is distributed uniformly in all
directions after reflection figchp11\[Link]
The emissive power of a body E is defined as the
energy emitted by the body per unit area per unit
time. Shown in figchp11\[Link] the black
enclosure will absorb all the incident radiation
falling upon it. It will also emit radiation according
to the T4 law. Let the radiant flux arriving at some
area in the enclosure be qi W/m2. If a body is placed
inside the enclosure and allowed to come to
equilibrium, the energy absorbed and emitted by the
body are equal. 6
At equilibrium
EA = qiAα
If the body had been a black body, then
EbA = qiA(1)
The above will give the ratio of the emissive power of
a body to the emissive power of a blackbody at the
same temperature as the absorptivity. This ratio is
also defined as the emissivity ε of the body, given as
E
  
Eb

7
The equality of α and ε is called Kirchoff’s identity.
The Gray Body
A gray body has its monochromatic emissivity ελ
independent of the wavelength. Monochromatic
emissivity is defined as the ratio of the
monochromatic emissive power of the body to the
monochromatic emissive power of a black body at
the same wavelength and temperature.
E
 
Eb

8
The total emissivity of the body and that of a
blackbody can be determined as
 
E    Eb d and Eb  Eb d T 4
0 0

From the above


E    Eb d
 0
Eb T 4

If the gray body condition is imposed, ελ = constant,

the above equation reduces to
ε = ελ
9
It has to be noted that the emissivities of various
substances vary widely with wavelength,
temperature, and surface condition.
For a blackbody, according to Planck, E bλ (spectral
emissive power) is given by
5
u c C1
Eb   C 2 / T
4 e 1

λ=wavelength, μm
T=temperature, K
C1 = 3.743 x 108 W.μm4/m2
C2 = 1.4387 x 104 μm . K 10
This emissive power is plotted in
figchp11\[Link] . Close observation of the
curves shows a shift of the peak points to the shorter
wavelengths for higher temperatures. This shift is
defined by Wien’s displacement law given by
λmax T = 2897.6 μm.K
The sun at 5800 K is considered as a black body. The
maximum emission is in the visible range and this
appears as white. For a black body at 1000K, peak
emission occurs at 2.90 μm (not visible), with some
of the emitted radiation appearing visible as red
light.
11
figchp11\[Link] shows the spectral energy
density of a black body at 1922 K, a corresponding
gray body with ε = 0.6 and approximate behavior of
a real surface.
Band Emissions
Frequently it will be of interest to get the amount of
energy radiated from a black body in a certain
specified wavelength range, figchp11\[Link].
This is expressed as a fraction given by

Eb0 


0
E  d
b

Eb0 
 E  d
0
b
12
Rearranging the spectral emission equation as
Eb C1
 C 2 / T
 f ( T )
T 5
( T ) (e
5
 1)
The results of the above have been tabulated (Table 1)
and graphically in figchp11\[Link] .
For radiant energy emitted between wavelengths λ1
and λ2
 Eb0  2 Eb0  1 
Eb 1  2 Eb0     Eb0  T 4
 Eb 
 0  Eb0  
From practical observations, ordinary glass is
transparent to solar radiation while not transmitting
13
earthly radiations. This is what is called the
greenhouse effect.
Solar radiation approximates that of a black body at
5800K. Ordinary window glass transmits radiation
up to about 2.5 μm. This gives λT= 2.5 x 5800 =
14500 μm.K. Referring to the table, about 97 % of
the radiation emitted is transmitted through the
glass. Glass is transparent for solar radiation.
Whereas earthly radiations at about 300 K λT=2.5 x
300 = 750 μm.K. The table shows only a minute
fraction (less than 0.001 percent) of this radiation is
transmitted. Glass is opaque for earthly radiations.
There comes the greenhouse effect!
14
Example 11.1
A glass plate 30 cm square is used to view radiation
from a furnace. The transmissivity of the glass is
0.5 from 0.2 to 3.5 μm. The emissivity may be
assumed to be 0.3 up to 3.5 μm and 0.9 above that.
The transmissivity of the glass is zero, except in the
range from 0.2 to 3.5 μm. Assuming that the
furnace is a blackbody at 2000 oC, calculate the
energy absorbed in the glass and the energy
transmitted.
Solution
T = 2000oC = 2273 K
15
 λ1T = (0.2)(2273) = 454.6 μm.K
λ2T = (3.5)(2273) = 7955.5 μm.K
A = (0.3)2 = 0.09 m2
From table
Eb  Eb 
0 1
0 0 2
0.85443
T 4
T 4

σT4 = (5.669 x 10-8)(2273)4 = 1.5133 x106 W/m2

Total incident radiation is
0.2 μm < λ <3.5 μm
= (1513.3)(0.85443 - 0)0.09= 116.4 kW
Total radiation transmitted = (0.5) (116.4) = 58.2 kW
16
 Radiation absorbed
(0.3)(116 .4) 34.92 kW for 0    3.5 m
0.9(1  0.85443)(1513.3)(0.09) 17.84 kW
for 3.5     m

Total radiation absorbed = 34.92 +17.84 = 52.76 kW

17
Radiation Shape Factor
Given two black surfaces which see each other, as
shown in figchp11\[Link] , a general
expression for energy exchange between such
surfaces at different temperatures will be required.
This will require the concept of radiation shape
factors or view factors. These are defined as follows.
F1-2 = fraction of energy leaving surface 1 which
reaches surface 2
F2-1 = fraction of energy leaving surface 2 which
reaches surface 1
Fm-n = fraction of energy leaving surface m which
reaches surface n 18
The energy leaving surface 1 and arriving at surface 2
is Eb1A1F12
and the energy leaving surface 2 and arriving at
surface 1 is Eb2A2F21
All radiations falling on black surfaces will be
completely absorbed.
The net energy exchange is given by
Q1-2 = Eb1A1F12 - Eb2A2F21
For T1 = T2, Q1-2 =0
This will give A1F12 = A2F21
This reciprocity relation will hold true for all
situations. 19
The net heat exchange will therefore be
Q1-2 = A1F12(Eb1 – Eb2) = A2F21(Eb1 – Eb2)
The general reciprocity relation for any two surfaces i
and j will be
AiFij = AjFji
The direction of emission from dA1 is given with
reference to the zenith and azimuthal angles as
shown in figchp11\[Link] . This radiation
passes through a differential area dA n which is
normal to the path of the radiation. This area
subtends a solid angle dω when viewed from a point
on dA1. The similarity of the angle subtended by an20
the solid angle subtended by an area is shown in
figchp11\[Link] . The plane angle dα has a
unit of radians while that of dω is the steradian (sr).
To determine a general relation for shape factors,
consider the angles θ1 and θ2, the angles with
reference to the normals of the surfaces. The
projection of dA1 on the line between centers is
dA1 cos θ1
The radiation intensity is that emitted per unit area and
per unit of solid angle in a certain specified
direction. This is given by Ib considering a black
surface.
21
The differential solid angle can easily be determined as
shown in figchp11\[Link] . This is given by
dAn
2
sin dd d
r
Thus the energy leaving dA1 in the direction of θ1 is
Ib dA1 cos θ1
The radiation arriving at some areal element dA n at a
distance r from A1 would be
Ib dA1 cos θ1 (dω)
The intensity from the differential area can be determined
in terms of the emissive power by

22
integrating over a hemisphere enclosing the elemental
area dA1 as shown in figchp11\[Link] .
2  /2
Eb dA1 I b dA1   sin  cos dd
0 0

I b dA1
Eb I b
With respect to the line, r, connecting the two
differential areas dA1 and dA2, the area dAn is given
by
dAn = cos θ2 dA2
This will give the energy leaving dA 1 and arriving
23
at dA2 as dq I dA cos  d E cos  cos  dA1dA2
1 2 b 1 1 b1 1 2
r 2
dA1dA2
q1 2 Eb1   cos 1 cos  2 Eb1 A1 F12
A1 A2 r 2

And the energy leaving dA2 and arriving at dA1 will be

dA1dA2
dq2 1 Eb 2 cos 1 cos  2
r 2

dA1dA2
q2 1 Eb 2   cos 1 cos  2 Eb 2 A2 F21
A1 A2 r 2

As the integrals are exactly the same, the above

equations give the reciprocity relation
AF =AF 24
The view factor for an enclosure with N surfaces with
temperatures T1, T2, …., TN is given by
N

F
j 1
ij 1

The term Fii is non zero if it sees itself.

For radiation exchange in an enclosure of N surfaces,
a total of N2 view factors is needed as arranged in
the matrix form  F11 F12 ......F1N 
 
 F21 F22 ......F2 N 
. . . 
 
. . . 
F 
FN 2 ......FNN 
 N 1  25
Out of this N2 view factors, which require N2
equations, there are N equations formed by the
summation rule and N(N-1)/2 equations formed by
the reciprocity relations. This will then require only
(N2-N(N-1)/2)=N(N-1)/2 view factors to be
determined. For a three surface enclosure we need
to determine three view factors only to completely
determine the view factors.
As an example consider a two surface enclosure
involving two spheres as shown in
figchp11\[Link] . For this we will need to
determine four view factors (F11, F12, F21, F22).
26
Only N(N-1)/2 view factors need to be determined to
completely get the values of the view factors. One
view factor is to be determined directly. By
inspection F11 = 0 . For the rest use the equations
formed by summation given by
F11 + F12 =1 F12 =1
F21 + F22 =1
And the reciprocity relation
A1F12 = A2F21
(three equations and three unknowns)
F21= A2 /A1 F22 = 1 - F21 = 1 - A2 /A1
27
For other complicated geometries, the double integral
equations have been solved and the results given in
tables and graphs.(tables 2&3, and graphs 1, 2, and
3)
For view factors to a subdivided surface shown in
figchp11\[Link], consider the radiation from
surface i to surface j, which is divided into n
components, the view factor is given as a
summation
n
Fi ( j )  Fik [ ( j ) equivalent to (1,2,..., k ,...n)]
k 1

28
The view factor when radiation originates from a
subdivided surface can be determined as follows:
Multiplying the above equation by Ai and applying the
reciprocity relation gives
n
Ai Fi ( j )  A( j ) F( j ) i  Ak Fki
k 1
n

A F k ki
F( j )i  k 1n
A
k 1
k

29
Example 11.2
Consider a diffuse circular disk of diameter D and area
Aj and a plane diffuse surface of area A i <<Aj. The
surfaces are parallel, and Ai is located at a distance L
from the centre of Aj. Obtain an expression for the
view factor Fij.

30
Solution
We will use 1 dAi dA j
Fij 
Ai   cos cos
Ai Aj
i j
R 2

θi, θj, and R are approximately independent of position

on Ai, the above reduces to
cos i cos j cos 2 
Fij  dA j  dA j ( i  j )
Aj R 2 A j R 2

Using R2 =r2 +L2, cos θ = (L/R) and dAj = 2πrdr , the

integration will give
2
D/2 rdr D

2
Fij 2 L 2 2 2
 2 2
0 (r  L ) D  4L
31
Example 11.3
Determine all the view factors for the following
geometries.
1. Sphere of diameter D inside a cubical box of length
L=D.
2. Diagonal partition within a long square duct.
3. End and side of a circular tube of equal length and
diameter.

32
Solution

1. Sphere within a cube:

F12 =1 F21 = (A1/A2)F12 = (πD2/(6L2)x1 = π/6
From summation relation
F11 + F12 = 1 → F11 = 0
F21 + F22 = 1 → F22 = (1- π/6)
33
2. Partition within a square duct
By inspection F11 = F22 = F33 = 0
Summation equations
F12 + F13 = 1 (symmetry F12 = F13 =0.5)
F21 + F23 = 1
F31 + F32 = 1
A2 = A 3 = L A1 = (√2)L
Reciprocity
A1F13 = A3F31 F31 = (A1/A3)F13= (√2)F13=0.71
A1F12 = A2F21 F21 = (A1/A2)F12=(√2)F12 =0.71
A2F23 = A3F32 F32 = (A2/A3)F23= F23
F23 = 1-F21=1-0.71=0.29
34
F = F = 0.29
3. Circular tube:
Using Graph 2 with r3/L = 0.5 and L/r1 = 2 will give F31≈0.17
F11 = 0 F33 = 0
A1 = A3 = (πD2/4) A2 = πD2
Summation equations
F12 + F13 = 1
F21 + F22 + F23 = 1 (symmetry F21 = F23)
F31 + F32 = 1 (F32 = 1-F31 = 0.83)
Reciprocity
A2F23 = A3F32 F23 = (A3/A2)F32= (1/4)F32=0.208 F21=0.208
A1F13 = A3F31 F13 = (A3/A1)F31= F31=0.17
F22 = 1 – (F21 + F23) = 0.58
A1F12 = A2F21 F12 = (A2/A1)F21=(4)F21=0.83
35
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
When radiation falls on an opaque surface there will
be a possibility of absorption and reflection. In an
enclosure there will be multiple reflections with
partial absorptions.
Blackbody Radiation Exchange
The simplest radiation exchange will be between black
surfaces where there will be no possibility of
reflection.
The following terms will need to be defined.
G = irradiation
= total radiation incident upon a surface per unit
time per unit area 36
J = radiosity
= total radiation which leaves a surface per unit time
per unit area
For a black surface radiosity is the same as the
emission.
For the analysis of radiative heat transfer between
black surfaces, we will use figchp11\[Link].
Define qi→j as the rate at which radiation leaves
surface i and is intercepted by surface j. This can be
expressed as

37
 qi  j ( Ai J i ) Fij Ai Fij Ebi
Similarly
q j  i A j F ji Ebj
Net radiative exchange will be
qij qi  j  q j  i
Substitution gives
qij  Ai Fij Ebi  A j F ji Ebj  Ai Fij ( J i  J j )  Ai Fij (Ti 4  T j4 )
This will allow the construction of a thermal network
that satisfies
Ji  J j 1
qij R
1 / Ai Fij Ai Fij 38
For surface i being in an enclosure and interacting
with N surfaces at different temperatures, the above
equation can extended to
N
qi  Ai Fij (Ti  T )
4
j
4

j 1

Example 11.4
A furnace cavity, which is in the form of a cylinder of
75 mm diameter and 150 mm length, is open at one
end to large surroundings that are at 27 oC. The sides
and bottom, which may be approximated as black
bodies, are heated electrically, well insulated,
39
and maintained at temperatures of 1350 and 1650 oC,
respectively. How much power is required to
maintain the furnace conditions.

40
Solution

Since the surrounding is large it may be treated as a

black body. Here the heat transfer by convection
will be assumed to be negligible compared to the
radiative heat transfer.
41
With T3 = Tsur, the heat loss can be expressed as
q = q13 + q 23
Using appropriate equations for radiation between
black surfaces
q  A1 F13 (T1  T3 )  A2 F23 (T2  T3 )
4 4 4 4

For the two opposing surfaces (top and bottom), using

(rj/L) = (0.0375/0.15) = 0.25 and
(L/ri) = (0.15/0.375) = =4
F23 = 0.06 (From view factor graphs)
Use summation rule
F21 + F23 =1 F21 = 1-0.006 = 0.94
42
Use reciprocity relation
A1F12 = A2F21 to get
A2  (0.075) 2 / 4
F12  F21  x0.94 0.118
A1  (0.075)(0.15)
From symmetry F13 = F12
Substitution in q gives
8
q (x0.75 x0.15)(0.118 x5.67 x10
 
[(1623)  (300) ]    (0.075) 2 x0.06
4 4

 4
8 4 4
x 5.67 x10 [(1923)  (300) ]
43
 q = 1639 +205 = 1844 W

Radiative exchange between nonblackbodies

Here for an opaque body, the radiosity will also
involve the reflected part from the irradiation as
shown in figchp11\[Link] . More
complication is when the reflection is back and forth
between the heat transfer surfaces several times.
The radiosity is given by
J = εEb +ρG
Using ρ = 1 – α = 1- ε
44
the radiosity expression becomes
J = εEb + (1 – ε)G G = (J - εEb )/(1 – ε)
The difference between the radiosity and the
irradiation gives net energy leaving the surface as
(q/A) = J – G =J - (J - εEb )/(1 – ε)
After substitution of G and simplification gives
A Eb  J
q ( Eb  J ) or q 
1  (1   ) / A

The above allows the construction of a network with

the surface resistance as indicated.

45
If we consider the radiant energy exchange between
two surfaces, A1 and A2, the net heat transfer from
surface 1 to surface 2 can easily be determined as
q1-2 = J1A1F12 – J2A2F21
Using the reciprocity relation A1F12=A2F21
q1-2 = (J1– J2)A1F12 = (J1– J2) A2F21
For network construction the above can be written as
J1  J 2
q1 2 
1 / A1 F12

where the resistance is indicated as space resistance.

46
The radiation exchange between two surfaces which
exchange heat with each other and nothing else can be
represented as a network given by figchp11\[Link]
. From this network the net heat transfer from surface 1 to
surface 2 can easily be determined as
Eb1  Eb 2
qnet 
1  1 1 1  2
 
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
 (T14  T24 )

1  1 1 1  2
 
 1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2

For other two surface enclosures, Table 4 gives the

necessary information.
47
For a three body problem, the network is given in
figchp11\[Link] .
J1  J 2 J1  J 3
q1 2  q1 3 
1 / A1 F12 1 / A1 F13
Kirchoff’s current law can be used to determine the
radiosities. Sum of heat transfers to a node is zero.
This can be extended for a radiative interaction of a
surface with other surfaces that form an enclosure as
Ebi  J i N Ji  J j
qi  
(1   i ) /  i Ai j 1 ( Ai Fij )  1
For any number N of surfaces forming the enclosure
there will be N equations with JN unknowns.
48
Radiation Shields
Radiation shields use low emissivity materials (high
reflectivity) placed between radiating surfaces as
shown in figchp11\[Link] (a).
If such a surface is placed additional surface and space
resistances will be created, thus reducing the heat
transfer. The network is shown in (b). The heat
transfer rate can easily be determined from the
series resistance network as
A1 (T14  T24 )
q12 
1 1 1   3,1 1   3, 2
  
1 2  3,1  3, 2
49
Insulated surfaces and Surfaces with large areas.
For a perfectly insulated surface or that reradiates all
the energy incident upon it, the heat flow from such
a surface is zero. This makes the potential
difference across the surface resistance to be zero,
resulting in J=Eb. The insulated surface does not
have zero resistance.

50
Large surface area (A→∞) has a surface resistance
approaching zero. This behaves as a black body as
it tends to absorb all the radiant energy falling on it.
For this the surface resistance is zero (ε=1) and this
gives J = Eb. Thus the two cases – insulated surface
and surface with a large area – both have J = E b .
If two flat or convex surfaces are connected by or
enclosed in a reradiating surface as shown in the
combustion furnace (figchp11\[Link] for the
schematic figchp11\[Link] ), as no net heat is
exchanged with this body, JR = EbR.
F1R = 1 – F12 F11 = F22 = 0
51
F =1–F
The network is a simple series parallel arrangement
which can be shown to give
Eb1  Eb 2
q1  q2 
1  1 1 1  2
 1

 1 A1 A1 F12  [(1 / A1 F1R )  (1 / A2 F2 R )]  2 A2
After determining J1 and J2, then JR can be determined
from
J1  J R JR  J2
 0
(1 / A1 F1R ) (1 / A2 F2 R )
Since J R TR4 the temperature of the reradating
surface can be determined
52
Example 11.5
A paint baking oven consists of a long, triangular duct
in which a heated surface is maintained at 1200 K
and another surface is insulated. Painted panels,
which are maintained at 500 K, occupy the third
surface. The triangle is of width W = 1 m on a side,
and the heated insulated surfaces have an emissivity
of 0.8. The emissivity of the panels is 0.4. During
the steady-state operation, at what rate must energy
be supplied to the heated side per unit length of the
duct to maintain its temperature at 1200 K? What is
the temperature of the insulation surface?
53
Solution
The system will be modeled as a three surface
enclosure as shown in the figure below

54
1. The heat transfer rate to be supplied is determined
from
Eb1  Eb 2
q1 
1  1 1 1  2
 1

 1 A1 A1 F12  [(1 / A1 F1R )  (1 / A2 F2 R )]  2 A2
Symmetry: F12 = F1R = F2R
A1 = A2 = WL L is length of duct

8 4 4
'q1 5.67 x10 (1200  500 )
q  
L 1  0.8  1  0.4
1
1
1

0.8 x1 1x0.5  [2  2] 0.4 x1
or q1' 37kW / m  q2' 55
2. For the temperature of the insulated surface use
will be made of the equality of JR and EbR. To get JR
use
J1  J R JR  J2
 0
(1 / A1 F1R ) (1 / A2 F2 R )
1  1 ' 8 4 1  0.8
J1 Eb1  q1 5.67 x10 (1200)  x (37000)
 1W 0.8 x1
108323 W / m 2
1  2 ' 8 4 1  0.4
J 2 Eb 2  q2 5.67 x10 (500)  x ( 37000)
 2W 0.4 x1
59043 W / m 2
56
Substitution gives

108323  J R J R  59043
 0
1 1
W x L x 0.5 W x L x 0.5
This gives
J R 83683 W / m 2 EbR TR4
1
 83683  4
TR  8 
1102 K
 5.67 x10 

57
M

58