Chapter 15

Adolescence – Social Emotional

Development
 Chapter Objectives
• After this chapter, you should be able to:
• 1. Compare Erikson and Marcia’s Theories
• 2. Explain Identity and Self-concept
• 3. Summarize the Stages of Ethnic Identity Development
• 4. Explain the Development of Gender Identity
• 5. Summarize Sexuality Identity and Orientation
• 6. Describe Antisocial Behaviors
• 7. Explain the Developmental Stage of Emerging Adulthood
 Introduction
• Adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to
be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents
expect of them. Other teens develop identities that align more with
the peer groups rather than their parents’ expectations.
• This is common as adolescents work to form their identities. They pull
away from their parents and the peer group becomes very important
• Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated
with positive outcomes for the adolescent, such as better grades and
fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in
other countries.
 Erik Erikson – Theory of
Psychosocial Development
• Erikson proposed that each period of life has a unique challenge or
crisis that a person must face.
• This is referred to as a psychosocial development.
• According to Erikson, successful development involves dealing with
and resolving the goals and demands of each of these crises in a
positive way. These crises are usually called stages, although that is
not the term Erikson used.
• If a person does not resolve a crisis successfully, it may hinder their
ability to deal with later crises. For example, an individual who does
not develop a clear sense of purpose and identity
 Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Identity vs. Role Confusion is a major stage of development where
the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult.
• In adolescence, children (ages 12–18) face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
• Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis
of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.
• According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense
of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and
“What do I want to do with my life?”
 Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of
identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the
face of problems and other people’s perspectives.
• When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for
identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the
future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role
confusion.
• They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future.
Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to
“find” themselves as adults
 Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Erikson saw this as a period of confusion and experimentation regarding
identity and how one navigates along life’s path.
• During adolescence, we experience psychological moratorium, where teens
put their current identity on hold while they explore their options for identity.
• The culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself. Those
who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may either withdraw further into
social isolation or become lost in the crowd.
• However, more recent research suggests, that few leave this age period with
identity achievement, and that most identity formation occurs during young
adulthood
 James Marcia – Theory of Identity
Development
• One approach to assessing identity development was proposed by James
Marcia.
• In his approach, adolescents are asking questions regarding their
exploration of and commitment to issues related to occupation, politics,
religion, and sexual behavior.
• Studies assessing how teens pass through Marcia’s stages show that
although most teens eventually succeed in developing a stable identity, the
path to it is not always easy and there are many routes that can be taken.
• Marcia identified four identity statuses that represent the four possible
combinations of the dimension of commitment and exploration.
 Table 15.1 Identity Status
Identity Status Description8
Identity-Diffusion status is a status that characterizesThe individual does not have firm commitments
those who have neither explored the options, nor made regarding the issues in question and is not making
a commitment to an identity. progress toward them. Those who persist in this
identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to
those around them or have little sense of purpose in
life.
Identity-Foreclosure status is the status for those who The individual has not engaged in any identity
have made a commitment to an identity without having experimentation and has established an identity based
explored the options. on the choices or values of others. Some parents may
make these decisions for their children and do not grant
the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other
instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and
others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps.
 Table 15.1 Identity Status
Identity-Moratorium status is a status that The individual is exploring various choices but has
describes those who are exploring in an attempt not yet made a clear commitment to any of them.
to establish an identity but have yet to have made This can be an anxious and emotionally tense time
any commitment. period as the adolescent experiments with
different roles and explores various beliefs.

Identity-Achievement status refers to the status The individual has attained a coherent and
for those who, after exploration, have made a committed identity based on personal decisions.
commitment. This is a long process and is not often achieved by
the end of adolescence
 James Marcia – Theory of Identity
Development
• The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity
diffusion.
• During high school and the college years, teens and young adults move
from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and
achievement. The biggest gains in the development of identity are in
college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career
choices, lifestyles, and beliefs.
• This is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the
identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values
and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we
hope to accomplish in the future
 Development of Identity and Self
Concept: Who am I?
• Developmental psychologists have researched several
different areas of identity development for adolescence
and some of the main areas include:
Religious Identity
• The religious views of teens are often similar to that of
their families. Most teens may question specific customs,
practices, or ideas in the faith of their parents, but few
completely reject the religion of their families.
 Development of Identity and Self
Concept: Who am I?
Political Identity
• The political ideology of teens is also influenced by their
parents’ political beliefs. A new trend in the 21st century
is a decrease in party affiliation among adults. Many
adults do not align themselves with either the democratic
or republican party, but view themselves as more of an
“independent”. Their teenage children are often following
suit or becoming more apolitical (Côtè, 2006).
 Development of Identity and Self
Concept: Who am I?
Vocational Identity
• While adolescents in earlier generations envisioned
themselves as working in a particular job, and often
worked as an apprentice or part-time, this is rarely the
case today. Vocational identity takes longer to develop, as
most of today’s occupations require specific skills and
knowledge that will require additional education or are
acquired on the job itself. In addition, many of the jobs
held by teens are not in professions that most teens will
seek as adults.
 Development of Identity and Self
Concept: Who am I?
Gender Identity
• This is also becoming an increasingly prolonged task as
attitudes and norms regarding gender keep changing. The
roles appropriate for males and females are evolving.
Some teens may foreclose on a gender identity as a way of
dealing with this uncertainty, and they may adopt more
stereotypic male or female roles.
 Development of Identity and Self
Concept: Who am I?
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
• In adolescence, teens continue to develop their self-concept. Their ability to think of
the possibilities and to reason more abstractly may explain the further differentiation
of the self during adolescence. However, the teen’s understanding of self is often full
of contradictions.
• Young teens may see themselves as outgoing but also withdrawn, happy yet often
moody, and both smart and completely clueless (Harter, 2012).
• These contradictions, along with the teen’s growing recognition that their personality
and behavior seem to change depending on who they are with or where they are, can
lead the young teen to feel like a fraud. With their parents they may seem angrier and
sullen, with their friends they are more outgoing and goofy, and at work they are quiet
and cautious. “Which one is really me?” may be the refrain of the young teenager.
Development of Gender Identity
• From birth, children are assigned a gender and are socialized to conform
to certain gender roles based on their biological sex. “Sex,” refers to
physical or physiological differences between males, females, and intersex
persons, including both their primary and secondary sex characteristics.
“Gender,” on the other hand, refers to social or cultural distinctions
associated with a given sex.
• Scholars generally regard gender as a social construct, meaning that it
doesn’t exist naturally but is instead a concept that is created by cultural
and societal norms. From birth, children are socialized to conform to
certain gender roles based on their biological sex and the gender to which
they are assigned.
Development of Gender Identity
• A person’s subjective experience of their own gender and
how it develops, or gender identity, is a topic of much
debate.
• It is the extent to which one identifies with a particular
gender; it is a person’s individual sense and subjective
experience of being a man, a woman, or other gender. It is
often shaped early in life and consists primarily of the
acceptance (or non-acceptance) of one’s membership into
a gender category. In most societies, there is a basic
division between gender attributes assigned to males and
females.
Development of Gender Identity
• Those that identify with the gender that corresponds to
the sex assigned to them at birth (for example, they are
assigned female at birth and continue to identify as a girl,
and later a woman) are called cisgender. In many
Western cultures, individuals who identify with a gender
that is different from their biological sex (for example,
they are assigned female at birth but feel inwardly that
they are a boy or a gender other than a girl) are called
transgender.
 Gender Roles
• The term “gender role” refers to society’s concept of how men and women
are expected to act. As we grow, we learn how to behave from those
around us.
• In this socialization process, children are introduced to certain roles that
are typically linked to their biological sex. The term “gender role” refers to
society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act and behave.
• Gender roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society.
• In American culture, masculine roles have traditionally been associated
with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles have
traditionally been associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination.
 Gender Socialization
• The socialization process in which children learn these gender roles
begins at birth.
• Today, our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in
pink, even applying these color-coded gender labels while a baby is
in the womb. It is interesting to note that these color associations
with gender have not always been what they are today.
• Up until the beginning of the 20th century, pink was actually more
associated with boys, while blue was more associated with girls—
illustrating how socially constructed these associations really are.
 Gender Stereotypes, Sexism, and
Gender-Role Enforcement
• The attitudes and expectations surrounding gender roles are not typically
based on any inherent or natural gender differences, but on gender
stereotypes, or oversimplified notions about the attitudes, traits, and
behavior patterns of males and females. We engage in gender stereotyping
when we do things like making the assumption that a teenage babysitter is
female.
• Gender stereotypes form the basis of sexism, or the prejudiced beliefs that
value males over females. Common forms of sexism in modern society
include gender-role expectations, such as expecting women to be the
caretakers of the household. Sexism also includes people’s expectations of
how members of a gender group should behave.
 Socialization Agents During
Adolescence
• Adolescence is a crucial period in social development,
research shows there are four main types of relationships
that influence an adolescent: parents, peers, community,
and society.
 Parents and Teens: Autonomy and
Attachment
• While most adolescents get along with their parents, they
do spend less time with them (Smetana, 2011).
• This decrease in the time spent with families may be a
reflection of a teenager’s greater desire for independence
or autonomy. It can be difficult for many parents to deal
with this desire for autonomy.
• However, it is normal for teenagers to increasingly
distance themselves and establish relationships outside of
their families in preparation for adulthood.
 Parents and Teens: Autonomy and
Attachment
• Children in middle and late childhood are increasingly given greater
freedom regarding basic decision making. This continues in adolescence, as
teens demand more and more control over the decisions that affect their
daily lives.
• Teens believe they should manage the areas that parents previously had
considerable control over, which can increase tension between parents and
their teenagers. Their arguments often center on issues of a power struggle
or conflict in areas such as chores, homework, curfew, dating, personal
appearance, and the right to privacy.
• Research on attachment in adolescence finds that teens who are still
securely attached to their parents have less emotional problems
 The Parent-Child Relationship
• The relationship with parents may be a mitigating factor of the negative
influence by peers.
• Communicating family rules and parental style have been inversely
associated to substance, alcohol, and tobacco consumption during
adolescence. This influence is essential for adolescents’ development up to
adulthood. Communication between parents and adolescents emerges as a
protective factor for alcohol, tobacco, and substance use.
• Sen (2010) observed that family meals could lead to creating a closer
relation between parents and adolescents, by strengthening a positive
relationship and avoiding certain risk behaviors, such as substance use
amongst girls and alcohol consumption, physical violence, and robberies,
amongst boys.
 Peer Relationships
• In addition, peers also serve as an important source of
social support and companionship during adolescence. As
children become adolescents, they usually begin spending
more time with their peers and less time with their
families, and these peer interactions are increasingly
unsupervised by adults.
• The level of influence that peers can have over an
adolescent makes these relationships particularly
important in their personal development. Adolescents with
positive peer relationships are happier and better
adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have
 Peer Relationships
• Adolescents’ notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of
thoughts and feelings, which are important to forming friendships; these high
quality friendships may enhance a child’s development regardless of the
particular characteristics of those friends.
• The peer group may serve as a model and influence behaviors and attitudes
and also provide easy access, encouragement and an appropriate social setting
for consumption
• Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence.
Relationships with peers are valuable opportunities for adolescents to practice
their social and conflict resolution skills. But negative peer pressure can lead
adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior
than they would alone or in the presence of their family.
 Peer Relationships
• Peers may strongly determine preference in the way of
dressing, speaking, using illicit substances, sexual
behavior, adopting and accepting violence, adopting
criminal and anti-social behaviors, and in many other
areas of the adolescent’s life
• On the other hand, having friends allows to share
experiences and feelings and to learn how to solve
conflicts. Not having friends, on the other hand, leads to
social isolation and limited social contacts, as there are
fewer opportunities to develop new relations and social
interactional skills.
 Community, Society, and Culture
• Many factors that shape adolescent development vary by culture. For instance,
the degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous, or independent
beings varies widely in different cultures, as do the behaviors that represent this
emerging autonomy.
• The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is also profoundly shaped by the
roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume.
• The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities, for
example, is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior.
• Adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to
household chores and responsibilities, while others are given more freedom or
come from families with more privilege where responsibilities are fewer.
 Bicultural/Multiracial Identity
• Ethnic minorities must wrestle with the question of how, and to what extent, they
will identify with the culture of their surroundings, thus society and with the culture
of their family.
• Phinney (2006) suggests that people may handle it in different ways. Some may keep
the identities separate, others may combine them in some way, while others may
reject some of them.
• Bicultural identity means individuals sees themselves as part of both the ethnic
minority group and the larger society. Those who are multiracial, that is whose
parents come from two or more ethnic or racial groups, have a more challenging
task.
• In some cases their appearance may be ambiguous. This can lead to others
constantly asking them to categorize themselves.
 Media: Influences on Teens
• Media is another agent of socialization that influences our political views;
our tastes in popular culture; our views of women, people of color, and the
LGBTQ+ community; and many other beliefs and practices. In an ongoing
controversy, the media is often blamed for youth violence and many other of
society’s ills. The average child sees thousands of acts of violence on
television and in the movies before reaching young adulthood.
• In the General Social Survey (GSS), about 28% of respondents said that
they watch four or more hours of television every day, while another 46%
watch 2-3 hours daily (see "Average Number of Hours of Television Watched
Daily"). The media certainly are an important source of socialization that
was unimaginable a half-century ago.
 Media: Influences on Teens
• As the media socializes children, adolescents, and even adults, a key
question is the extent to which media violence causes violence in our
society.
• Studies consistently uncover a strong correlation between watching violent
television shows and movies and committing violence.
• However, this does not necessarily mean that watching the violence actually
causes violent behavior: perhaps people watch violence because they are
already interested in it and perhaps even committing it.
• Scholars continue to debate the effect of media violence on youth violence.
 Dating and Romantic
Relationships
• Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic
relationships typically first emerge. By the end of adolescence, most
American teens have dated others and have had at least one romantic
relationship (Dolgin, 2011).
• However, culture does play a role as Asian Americans and Latinas are
less likely to date than other ethnic groups (Connolly, Craig, Goldberg,
& Pepler, 2004).
• Dating serves many purposes for teens, including having fun,
companionship, status, socialization, intimacy, sexual experimentation,
and partner selection for those in late adolescence (Dolgin, 2011).
 Table 15.4 - Romantic
Relationships in Adolescence
Age Relationship
Early Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer
Adolescence groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000). Interacting in mixed-sex groups
is easier for teens as they are among a supportive group of friends, can
observe others interacting, and are kept safe from becoming intimate too
soon.

Middle By middle adolescence, teens are engaging in brief, casual dating, or in group
Adolescence dating with other couples (Dolgin, 2011).
Late Adolescence In late adolescence, dating involves exclusive, intense relationships that are
short-lived or are long-term committed partnerships, either way their
importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time
focused on romantic relationships or lack thereof. Their positive and negative
emotions are tied to this intense interest more than they are to friendships,
family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003).
Development of Sexual Orientation
• According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their
sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence. However, this is
not always the case, and some do not become aware of their sexual orientation until
much later in life. It is not necessary to participate in sexual activity to be aware of
these emotional, romantic, and physical attractions
• Gay, lesbian, and bisexual people regularly experience stigma, harassment,
discrimination, and violence based on their sexual orientation (Carroll, 2016).
Research has shown that gay, lesbian, and bisexual teenagers are at a higher risk of
depression and suicide due to exclusion from social groups, rejection from peers and
family, and negative media portrayals of homosexuals (Bauermeister et al., 2010).
Discrimination can occur in the workplace, in housing, at schools, and in numerous
public settings. Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes and
misinformation.
 Societal Views on Sexuality
• Society's views on sexuality are influenced by everything
from religion to philosophy, and they have changed
throughout history and are continuously evolving.
Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on
sexual behavior in the United States; however, in more
recent years, peers and the media have emerged as two of
the strongest influences, particularly among American
teens (Potard, Courtois, & Rusch, 2008).
Media Influences on Sexuality
• Media in the form of television, magazines, movies, music,
online, etc., continues to shape what is deemed
appropriate or normal sexuality, targeting everything from
body image to products meant to enhance sex appeal.
Media serves to perpetuate a number of social scripts
about sexual relationships and the sexual roles of men and
women, many of which have been shown to have both
empowering and problematic effects on people's
(especially women's) developing sexual identities and
sexual attitudes.
 Cultural Differences with
Sexuality
• In the West, premarital sex is normative by the late teens, more than a decade before
most people enter marriage.
• In the United States and Canada, and in northern and Eastern Europe, cohabitation is
also normative; most people have at least one cohabiting partnership before marriage.
• In southern Europe, cohabiting is still taboo, but premarital sex is tolerated in
emerging adulthood.
• In contrast, both premarital sex and cohabitation remain rare and forbidden
throughout Asia. Even dating is discouraged until the late twenties, when it would be a
prelude to a serious relationship leading to marriage.
• In cross-cultural comparisons, about three fourths of emerging adults in the United
States and Europe report having had premarital sexual relations by age 20, versus less
than one fifth in Japan and South Korea
Bullies, Victims, and the Bystander

• Bullying is defined as unwanted, aggressive behavior

among school aged children that involves a real or
perceived power imbalance. Further, the aggressive
behavior happens more than once or has the potential to
be repeated. There are different types of bullying.
 15.6 - Types of Bullying
Type of Bullying Description
Verbal Bullying Includes saying or writing mean things, teasing,
name calling, taunting, threatening, or making
inappropriate sexual comments.
Social bullying (also referred to as relational Includes spreading rumors, purposefully
bullying) excluding someone from a group, or
embarrassing someone on purpose.
Physical Bullying Includes hurting a person’s body or possessions.
Cyberbullying Involves electronic technology. Examples of
cyberbullying include sending mean text
messages or emails, creating fake profiles, and
posting embarrassing pictures, videos or rumors
on social networking sites.
 The Bystander Effect
• The discussion of bullying highlights the problem of witnesses not
intervening to help a victim. Researchers Latané and Darley (1968)
described a phenomenon called the bystander effect. The bystander
effect is a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not
volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. Instead, they just watch
what is happening. Social psychologists hold that we make these
decisions based on the social situation, not our own personality variables.
Why do you think bystanders don’t get help? What are the benefits to
helping? What are the risks? It is very likely you listed more costs than
benefits to helping. In many situations, bystanders likely feared for their
own lives—if they went to help, the attacker might harm them.
 Antisocial Behaviors
• According to the American Academy of Psychiatry (2018),
• Most kids will act up or become disruptive or defiant
sometimes. Disruptive and conduct disorders, however, involve
much more severe and longer-lasting behaviors than typical,
short-lived episodes. These disorders can cause people to
behave angrily or aggressively toward people or property. They
may have difficulty controlling their emotions and behavior and
may break rules or laws. An estimated 6 percent of children are
affected by oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder.
 Oppositional Defiant Disorder
(ODD):
• There is a recurrent pattern of negative, defiant,
disobedient, and hostile behavior toward authority figures.
It is important to remember that this is toward authority
figures and not their peers. This occurs outside of normal
developmental levels and leads to impairment in
functioning (Lack, 2010)
 Conduct Disorder (CD)
• Children with Conduct Disorder (CD) show acts of aggression towards
others and animals. Children with conduct disorder (CD) usually show
little to no compassion or concern for others or their feelings. Also,
concern for the well-being of others is at a minimum. Children also
perceive the actions and intentions of others as more harmful and
threatening than they actually are and respond with what they feel is
reasonable and justified aggression. They may lack feelings of guilt or
remorse. Since these individuals learn that expressing guilt or remorse
may help in avoiding or lessening punishment, it may be difficult to
evaluate when their guilt or remorse is genuine. Individuals will also try
and place blame on others for the wrong doings that they had committed.
 Adolescent Child Abuse
• Children and teens are among the most helpless victims of abuse. In
2010, there were more than 3.3 million reports of child abuse
involving an estimated 5.9 million children (Child Help 2011). Three-
fifths of child abuse reports are made by professionals, including
teachers, law enforcement personnel, and social services staff. The
rest are made by anonymous sources, other relatives, parents, friends,
and neighbors. Child abuse may come in several forms, the most
common is neglect (78.3 percent), followed by physical abuse (10.8
percent), sexual abuse (7.6 percent), psychological maltreatment (7.6
percent), and medical neglect (2.4 percent) (Child Help 2011)
 Emerging Adulthood: The Bridge
Between Adolescence and Adulthood
• The next stage of development is emerging adulthood
and is characterized as an in-between time where identity
exploration is focused on work and love, which occurs
from approximately 18 years of age to the mid to late 20s.
 Emerging Adulthood: The Bridge
Between Adolescence and Adulthood
• When does a person become an adult? There are many ways to
answer this question. I
• n the United States, you are legally considered an adult at 18
years old, but other definitions of adulthood vary widely; in
sociology, for example, a person may be considered an adult
when they become self-supporting, choose a career, get
married, or start a family.
• The ages at which we achieve these milestones vary from
person to person as well as from culture to culture.
 Emerging Adulthood: The Bridge
Between Adolescence and Adulthood
• For example, 50 years ago, a young adult with a high
school diploma could immediately enter the workforce and
climb the corporate ladder. That is no longer the case, a
Bachelor’s and even graduate degrees are required more
and more often—even for entry-level jobs (Arnett, 2000).
• In addition, many students are taking longer (five or six
years) to complete a college degree as a result of working
and going to school at the same time.
• After graduation, many young adults return to the family
home because they have difficulty finding a job.