Computer organization and Architecture

CHAPTER ONE
DIGITAL LOGIC BASICS

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Objectives:-
• To introduce basic logic gates;
• To discuss properties of logical expressions;
• To show how logical expressions can be
simplified and implemented;
• To illustrate the digital logic design process.
• Understand Boolean algebra is the theoretic
foundation to analyze the operation of logic
circuits
• Familiar with the rules and theorems of Boolean
algebra
• Know how to simplify the logic expression
 1.1. Overview of Digital computer
• The digital computer is a digital system that performs various
computational tasks.
• Digital computers function more reliably if only two states are
used.
• Digital computers use the binary number system, which has two
digits: 0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit.
• Information is represented in digital computers in groups of
bits.
• Groups of bits are used to develop complete sets of instructions
for performing various types of computations.
 Computer System
• A computer system is sometimes subdivided into two
functional entities:
1) Hardware-physical components
2) Software: consists of the instructions and data that the
computer manipulates to perform various data-processing
tasks.
Computer hardware
• consists of all the electronic components and
electromechanical devices that comprise the physical entity of
the device.
• The hardware of the computer is usually divided into the
following major parts
– Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains
• Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)- for manipulating data
• Registers for storing data
• Control unit for fetching and decoding instructions.
– The memory of a computer contains storage for instructions and data.
Also called a Random- Access Memory (RAM) and Secondary storage.
– The input and output processor (lOP) contains electronic circuits for
communicating and controlling the transfer of information between the
computer and the outside world. These include keyboards, printers,
terminals, and other communication devices.
Block diagram of digital computer

RAM

CPU

INPUT I/O PROCESSOR OUTPUT

DEVICE DEVICE
• The hardware of the computer is sometimes considered
from different points of view, depending on the interest
of the investigator.
– computer organization
– computer architecture.
Computer architecture is concerned with the structure
and behavior of the computer as seen by the user. It includes
the information formats, the instruction set, and techniques
for addressing memory.
Computer architecture answers How do I design a
computer?(what the computer does)
Computer organization is concerned with the way the
hardware components operate and the way they are
connected together to form the computer system.
Deals with functional structure
• Architecture deals with both the design of
computer components (hardware) and the
creation of operating systems (software) to
control the computer.

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 Hierarchical structuring of a computer system Architecture
 Actually a computer system composed of many layers of software and
hardware

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1.2. Fundamental building blocks (Simple Gates)
 Logic gates process signals which represent true or false
 The hardware that is responsible for executing machine language
instructions can be built using a large number of a few basic building blocks.
These building blocks are called logic gates.
 These logic gates implement the familiar logical operations such as AND,
OR, NOT, and so on, in hardware.
 Logic gates are in turn built using transistors. Transistors are the basic
electronic components of digital hardware circuits.
 Binary information is represented in digital computers by physical
Logic States
quantities called signals. True
1
False
0
High Low
On Off
+5V 0V
  The manipulation of binary information is done by logic circuits called gates.
 The circuits designed depend only on the inputs, not on the output.
Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol and its operation can be described by means
of an algebraic expression.
The input-output relationship of the binary variables for each gate can be represented
in tabular form by a truth table.
Each gate has one or two binary input variables designated by A and B and one binary
output variable designated by F or x
 A truth table is a list of all possible input combinations and their corresponding
output. Some types of Gate are:
1. Basic Logic Gates
a. AND Gate: gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high.
b. OR Gate: gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high.
c. NOT Gate: produces an inverted version of the input at its output
2. Universal Gates
a. NAND Gate:AND gate followed by a NOT gate
b. NOR Gate:equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate
3. Combinational Gates
X-OR Gate:'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not
a.
both, of its two inputs are high.
X-NOR Gate:'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the X-OR gate. It will give a
b.
low output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high.
GATES
Draw a circuit diagram for  = (xy' + x'y)z.

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1.3. Boolean Algebra and logic simplification
Why Studying Boolean Algebra?
• Boolean algebra used to simplify or optimize logic circuit
• Given logic expression , truth table is unique,
however, the expression and logic circuit diagram are
not…
• For example:

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1.3.1. Basic Operations, Rules of Boolean algebra and
DE Morgan's Theorem
1. Boolean Addition
• In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to
represent an action, a condition, or data.
• A single variable can only have a value of 1 or 0.
• The complement represents the inverse of a variable
and is indicated with an over bar.
• Thus, the complement of A is A.
• A literal is a variable or its complement.
• Addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The sum
term is 1 if one or more of the literals are 1.
• The sum term is zero only if each literal is 0. 16
Example: Determine the values of A, B, and C that make the
sum term of the expression A + B + C `==0? 0?
Solution: Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and
C = 1.
2. Boolean Multiplication
Multiplication?
• In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the
AND operation.
• The product of literals forms a product term.
• The product term will be 1 only if all of the literals are 1.
Example: What are the values of the A, B and C if the
product term of A.B`.C` = 1?
Solution: Each literal must = 1; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and
C = 0.
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Theorems comp design and arch page 22

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Stated another way,
The complement of two or more ANDed variables is equivalent
to the OR of the complements of the individual variables.
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Stated another way,
The complement of two or more ORed variables is equivalent to
the AND of the complements of the individual variables, 28
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1.3.2. Simplification USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• A simplified Boolean expression uses the fewest gates possible to implement a
given expression.
Example
• Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this expression:
AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)
Solution
Step 1: Apply the distributive law to the second and third terms in the expression, as
follows:
AB + AB + AC + BB + BC
Step 2: Apply rule 7 (BB = B) to the fourth term.
AB + AB + AC + B + BC
Step 3: Apply rule 5 (AB + AB = AB) to the first two terms.
AB + AC + B + BC
Step 4: Apply rule 10 (B + BC = B) to the last two terms.
AB + AC + B
Step 5: Apply rule 10 (AB + B = B) to the first and third terms.
B+AC
• At this point the expression is simplified as much as possible. 31
Simplify: C +( BC)’

• Expression
• Rule(s) Used
• C + (BC)’ Original Expression
• C + (B’ + C’) DeMorgan's Law.
• (C + C’) + B’ Commutative, Associative Laws.
• 1+ B ‘ Complement Law.
• =1 Identity Law.

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Cont…
Example 2
simplify
A B’ + A (B + C)’ + B (B + C)’

Solution:
A B’ + A (B + C)’ + B (B + C)’
= A B’ + A (B’ C’ ) + B(B’ C’)
= A B’+A B’ C’ + B B’ C’
= A B’(1 + C’) + 0
= A B’
Example 3
simplify
A B C + A B’ C’ + A’ B’ C’ + A B’ C.

solution:
=A C (B + B’) + B’ C’ ( A + A’)
=A C + B’ C’
 Fig. Gate circuits for example above.
Exercise
Simplify the Boolean expressions:

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STANDARD FORMS OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
• All Boolean expressions, regardless of their
form, can be converted into either of two
standard forms: the sum-of-products form or the
product-of sums form.
• Standardization makes the evaluation,
simplification, and implementation of Boolean
expressions much more systematic and easier.
The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form
• When two or more product terms are summed by
Boolean addition, the resulting expression is a
sum-of-products (SOP).
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Some examples are:

In an SOP expression a single overbar cannot extend over

more than
one variable.

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 Fig. Implementation of the SOP expression AB + BCD + AC.

Fig. This NAND/NAND implementation is equivalent to the AND/OR in figure above.

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 The Standard SOP Form
• So far, you have seen SOP expressions in which some
of the product terms do not contain all of the variables
in the domain of the expression. For example, the
expression has a domain made up
of the variables A, B, C, and D.
• However, notice that the complete set of variables in
the domain is not represented in the first two terms of
the expression; that is, is missing from the first
term and is missing from the second term.
• A standard SOP expression is one in which all the
variables in the domain appear in each product term
in the expression. For example, is a
standard SOP expression. 38
 The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form
• When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the
resulting expression is a product-of-sums (POS).
• Some examples are

• A POS expression can contain a single-variable term, as in A(A

+ B + C)(B + C + D).
• In a POS expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more
than one variable; however, more than one variable in a term can
have an overbar. For example, a POS expression can have the
term
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• Implementation of a POS Expression simply
requires ANDing the outputs of two or more OR
gates. A sum term is produced by an OR operation
and the product of two or more sum terms is
produced by an AND operation. Fig. below shows
for the expression (A + B)(B + C + D)(A + C). The
output X of the AND gate equals the POS
expression.

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The Standard POS Form
• So far, you have seen POS expressions in which some of the
sum terms do not contain all of the variables in the domain of
the expression. For example, the expression

has a domain made up of the variables A, B, C, and D.

Notice that the complete set of variables in the domain is
not represented in the first two terms of the expression; that
is, is missing from the first term and is missing
from the second term.
A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables
in the domain appear in each sum term in the expression.
For example,
is a standard POS expression. Any nonstandard POS
expression (referred to simply as POS) can be converted to 41the
standard form using Boolean algebra.
Review Questions
1. Construct the truth table for each the following
Boolean functions.

2. Draw the logic diagram for the Boolean

functions given in question 1
3. Construct the SOP and POS diagrams of the
Boolean functions of question 1.

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 Combinational circuit

• Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the

different gates in the circuit,
• for example encoder, decoder, multiplexer and demultiplexer.
• Some of the characteristics of combinational circuits are
following −
– The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends
only on the levels present at input terminals.
– The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous state
of input does not have any effect on the present state of the circuit.
– A combinational circuit can have an n number of inputs and m
number of outputs.

Block diagram

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We're going to elaborate few important combinational circuits as follows.
• Half Adder: is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two
outputs.
• The half adder circuit is designed to add two single bit binary number
A and B.
• It is the basic building block for addition of two single bit numbers.
• This circuit has two outputs carry and sum.

Circuit diagram
Truth Table
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• Full Adder
• Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half
Adder circuit.
• It can add two one-bit numbers A and B, and carry c.
• The full adder is a three input and two output
combinational circuit. Circuit Diagram
Circuit Diagram

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Truth Table
 Multiplexers
• Multiplexer: It is a digital circuit which selects one of the n data
inputs and routes it to the output

Multiplexers come in multiple

variations
2 : 1 multiplexer
4 : 1 multiplexer
16 : 1 multiplexer
32 : 1 multiplexer
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 Demultiplexers

• A demultiplexer performs the reverse operation of a multiplexer

i.e. it receives one input and distributes it over several outputs.
• It has only one input, n outputs, m select input
• Demultiplexers comes in multiple variations.
– 1 : 2 demultiplexer
– 1 : 4 demultiplexer
– 1 : 16 demultiplexer
– 1 : 32 demultiplexer

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 Sequential Circuits

• The combinational circuit does not use any memory.

• Hence the previous state of input does not have any effect on the
present state of the circuit.
• But sequential circuit has memory so output can vary based on
input. This type of circuits uses previous input, output, clock and a
memory element.

Flip Flop: is a sequential circuit which generally samples its inputs and changes its
outputs only at particular instants of time and not continuously.
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• THANK YOU!!!!!

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