RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

RESERVOIR PETROPHYSICS

POROSITY
 PETROPHYSICS

Petro physics is the study of rock properties and

rock interactions with fluids (gases, liquid
hydrocarbons, and aqueous solutions).

"Petro physics is the study of the physical

and chemical properties that describe the
occurrence & behavior of rocks, soil and fluids."
 RESERVOIR PETROPHYSICS
Systematic theoretical study of physical
properties of petroleum reservoir rocks

•Porosity-a measurement of void space in the

rock matrix.
•Permeability-measure of fluid transitivity.
• Fluid saturations - measure of gross fluid
distribution in rock.
• Capillary characteristics.
•Electrical properties of fluid saturated rocks.
 Porosity
• Porosity is defined as percentage or
fraction of void to the bulk volume of the
rock.
• The void space in reservoir rocks is the
due to inter- granular spaces between the
sedimentary particles
• The porosity of reservoir rocks must be
determined by direct measurement on core
samples in the laboratory or estimated in
situ by well log analysis.
 Porosity- types
Types on the basis of origin:
• Original porosity (primary)
• Induced porosity (secondary)

Rocks having original porosity are more

uniform in their characteristics than rocks
with an induced porosity
 Porosity- types
• Primary porosity is the space between
grains that were not compacted
together completely
• Secondary porosity is the porosity
created through alteration of rock,
commonly by processes such as
dolomitization, dissolution and
fracturing
 Porosity- types
On the basis of connectivity
• Absolute and effective porosity are
distinguished by their access capabilities
to reservoir fluids Void spaces
Permeable contributes
spaces to absolute
contributes porosity
to effective
porosity

Art-micrograph of sandstone with oil

 Parallel cylindrical pores Irregular-packed spheres with different radii

Porosity
Regular orthorhombic-packed
spheres

Regular rhombohedral-packed spheres

Regular cubic-packed spheres

Packing Models
 “Regular Cubic-Packed Spheres”

Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp Vb  Vm 
  1  0,476 or 47,6%
Vb Vb 6
Vp - pore volume
Vb - bulk volume ( 2r)3
Vm - matrix volume (volume of bulk space occupied by the rock)
1 4  4
  r 3  8  r 3
8 3  3
 “Regular Orthorhombic-Packed Spheres”

Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp Vb  Vm Vm 4r 3
  1  1  3
0,395 or 39,5%
Vb Vb Vb 12 3r
Vb - bulk volume 2r 2r h 4r 3 sin 60  4 3r 3
4
Vm - matrix volume  r 3
3
h - height of the orthorhombic - packed spheres
 “Regular Rhombohedral-Packed Spheres”

• Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp Vb  Vm Vm 4r 3
  1  1  3
0,26 or 26,0%
Vb Vb Vb 12 2r
Vb - bulk volume 2r 2r h 4 2r 3
4
Vm - matrix volume  r 3
3
h - height in the tetrahedron  4r 2  2r 2  2r
 “Parallel Cylindrical
Pores”

Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp r 2 n m 
   0,785 or 78,5%
Vb 2rn 2rm 4 r - pipe radius
m n - number of cylinders contained in the bulk volume
Vp - pore volume
Vb - bulk volume
 • Measurement of Porosity

Well Logs Core Analysis

 Core Analysis

Full-diameter Bulk-volume
Core Analysis measurements

Fluid-Summation
Method Pore-volume
measurements

Grain-volume
measurements
based on Boyle`s law
 What is permeability?
A measure of how easily a fluid (e.g.,
water) can pass through a porous
medium (e.g., soils)

water

Loose soil Dense soil

- easy to flow - difficult to flow
- high permeability - low permeability

15
 Permeability
• It affects how quickly a fluid can flow
through the soil.

“The ability of a fluid to flow through a

formation(solid media) is referred to as the
formation's permeability.”
Darcy’s Law Q h
q   K
A L
• Water flow through an aquifer.
• Darcy's law (conservation of momentum) was
determined experimentally by Darcy
• Darcy's law and
the continuity equation
are
used to derive
the groundwater
flow equation
 10-6 10-3 100

clays silts sands gravels

Fines Coarse

For coarse grain soils, k = f(e or D10)

Permeability Values

18
 Media Permeability
( darcy )

Gravel 105 -102

Silty sand 102 -10-2

shale 10-4 – 10-8

Unfractured metamorphic igneous 10-5 -10-10

rocks

Limestone & Dolomite 10-4 -10-1

Permeable Basalt 10-2 - 103

Perm. variation
 AVERAGE PERM.
• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers
• If permeability is not a constant function of space
(heterogeneity), we can calculate the average permeability
– Common, simple flow cases are considered here
• Linear, Parallel (cores, horizontal permeability)
• Linear, Serial (cores, vertical permeability)
• Radial, Parallel (reservoirs, horizontal layers)
• Radial, Serial (reservoir, damage or stimulation)

• Average permeability should represent the correct flow

capacity
– For a specified flow rate, average permeability results in same
pressure drop (and vice versa)
 Linear, Parallel Flow
• Permeability varies across several horizontal layers
(k1,k2,k3)

– Discrete changes in permeability

h  h1  h 2  h 3   h i
– Same pressure drop for each layer
p1 - p 2 Δp Δp1 Δp 2 Δp3
– Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
q q1  q 2  q 3  q i
– Average permeability results in correct total flow rate

kwh
q Δp ; A w h
μL
 Linear, Parallel Flow
• Substituting,
kwh k1 w h1 k2 w h2 k3 w h3
q Δp  Δp  Δp  Δp
μL μL μL μL

• Rearranging,

k
 k i h i
h
 Linear, Serial Flow
• Permeability varies across several vertical layers
(k1,k2,k3)

L
k
Li
k
i

Radial , Parallel Flow

k
 k i h i
h
Radial , serial flow

ln(re /rw )
k
(ln(ri 1/ri )

All Layers ki
 Measurement of linear permeability K

P (h) is kept
Fluid is forced into left end of constant:
a rock (or soil) specimen
water P (h)
under pressure P, and the
amount of fluid emerging at
the other end per unit time
(also called flow rate Q) is Rock

measured. L
Area = A
.
X
The same Pressure Gage
Pump
relationship is
valid in rock. Water

The test is shown

schematically Confining
Pressure Constant
here. (Hydraulic Downward
Oil) Pressure (P)

L Rock
Specimen
K dP Atmospheric
Qx  A Pressure (0 MPa)
 dx Triaxial Cell

Cross-
Section
Area = A
x
 The above experiment can be categorized into
following two broadly accepted procedures

•Whole core measurement •Perm plug

 Perm. Measurement
(recent trends)
• Modular formation Dynamic tester
Information about permeability in the near-wellbore area
is typically obtained from core data, logs and pretest
buildup investigations conducted with a wireline testing tool.
The depth of investigation of MDT pretests is almost
always within the invaded zone
• Well testing
pressure build-up(drawdown)
pulse testing (interference test)
multiple rate flow test
type curve
• Features
• Multiprobe configurations
• Two or three single probes
• Dual probe with one or two
single probes
• Dual-packer and probe
configurations
• Stand-alone dual packer
• Dual packer with one or more
probes above
• Dual packer with probe below
• Flow control module
• Combinable with downhole
pumpout module and sample
Chambers
• 1000-cm3 test volume at rates
from 1 to 200 cm3/s
 Porosity /Perm. Estimation from
Geophysical Well Logs
• Porosity can be estimated from:
– Formation resistivity factor
– Microresistivity log
– Neutron-gamma log
– Density (gamma-gamma) log
– Acoustic (sonic) log
Fluid Saturations
 Fluid Saturations
• Definition - The fluid saturation for a particular fluid is
the fraction of pore volume occupied by that fluid

– Saturation is an intensive property

– Equation Form: So=Vo/Vp, Sw=Vw/Vp, Sg=Vg/Vp

• These fluid volumes are measured under specific conditions of

pressure and temperature (e.g. reservoir, or laboratory)
 Fluid Saturations
• Fundamental Relationships
– Pore volume is occupied by fluids (water, oil, and/or
gas)
Vp Vw  Vo  Vg

Vw  Vo  Vg
1 Sw  So  Sg
Vp

• for the two phase case, only one of the two saturations is
independent, the other must make the sum of the saturations
equal to unity (1)

• similarly, for the three phase case, only two saturations are
independent
 Initial Fluid Saturations in Reservoir
• Concepts: typical petroleum accumulation scenario

– pores are initially saturated with water (Sw=1)

– hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps due to having density less than water
density (gravity force)

– hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas) is distributed such that gravity and capillary forces
are in equilibrium
minimum interstitial water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone, even after accumulation
occurs
– water wet, drainage accumulation process
» irreducible wetting phase saturation
– oil wet, accumulation process
» residual non-wetting phase saturation
 Initial Fluid Saturations in Reservoir
• Methods for determination of reservoir fluid saturations
– Direct Measurement

• Core Analysis

– Indirect Measurement

• Capillary Pressure Measurement

• Well Log Analysis

– electrical conductivity depends primarily on water saturation

Fluid Saturations - Core Analysis
• Factors affecting fluid saturations in cores

– flushing of core by filtrate from drilling fluids (especially for overbalanced

drilling)

• water filtrate
– water based mud
– oil emulsion mud
• oil filtrate
– oil based mud
– inverted oil emulsion mud
• gas filtrate
– air drilling
– foam drilling
Fluid Saturations - Core Analysis

– Changes in pressure and temperature as core sample is

brought from bottomhole conditions to surface
conditions

Example: Oil zone at minimum interstitial water saturation,

water based drilling mud
Flushing Saturation at Surface
During Trip to Compared to Reservoir
Drilling Surface
Sw   ? probably 
So   

Sg -  
Fluid Saturations - Core Analysis
• Factors affecting fluid saturations in cores
(continued)
– Example: Oil zone at minimum interstitial water
saturation, oil based drilling mud

Flushing Saturation at Surface

During Trip to Compared to
Drilling Surface Reservoir
Sw - - -
So -  

Sg -  
 Application of Core Saturations
• Application of Core Saturations: Water Based Mud
– presence of oil zone
– original oil/gas contact
– original oil/water contact

• Application of Core Saturations: Oil Based Mud

– fairly accurate minimum interstitial water saturation
– original oil/water contact

• Other Applications of Core Saturations

– correlation of indirect methods
Estimating Fluid Contact Depths
from Core Saturations
So
0 50

Gas

Depth
Oil

So  0 in gas zone
Water So > 0.15 in oil production
zone

0 < So < 0.15 in water

production zone
 Immiscible Phases
• Earlier discussions have considered only a
single fluid in the pores
– porosity
– permeability
• Saturation: fraction of pore space occupied by
a particular fluid (immiscible phases)
– Sw+So+Sg=1
• When more than a single phase is present, the
fluids interact with the rock, and with each other
 DEFINITION OF WETTABILITY
• Wettability is the tendency of one fluid
to spread on or adhere to a solid
surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids.
• Wettability refers to interaction between
fluid and solid phases.
• Reservoir rocks (sandstone, limestone,
dolomite, etc.) are the solid surfaces

• Oil, water, and/or gas are the fluids

 WATER-WET RESERVOIR ROCK
• Reservoir rock is water - wet if water preferentially wets
the rock surfaces
• The rock is water- wet under the following conditions:
 ws > os

• AT < 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is negative)

• 0 <  < 90

If  is close to 0, the rock is considered

to be “strongly water-wet”
 OIL-WET RESERVOIR ROCK

• Reservoir rock is oil-wet if oil preferentially wets

the rock surfaces.
• The rock is oil-wet under the following
conditions:
 os > ws
• AT > 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is positive)
• 90 <  < 180
If  is close to 180, the rock is considered to be
“strongly oil-wet”
 INTERFACIAL CONTACT ANGLES,
VARIOUS ORGANIC LIQUID IN
CONTACT WITH SILICA AND CALCITE
WATER

SILICA SURFACE
ORGANIC
LIQUIDS

WATER

CALCITE SURFACE
 GENERALLY,

•Silicate minerals have acidic surfaces

•Repel acidic fluids such as major polar
organic
compounds present in some crude oils
•Attract basic compounds
•Neutral to oil-wet surfaces
•Carbonate minerals have basic surfaces
•Attract acidic compounds of crude oils
•Neutral to oil-wet surfaces

Caution: these are very general statements and

relations that are debated and disputed by
petrophysicists.
 WATER-WET OIL-WET

Air
OIL Oil OIL



 WATER  WATER
 < 90
WATER WATER  > 90
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER

OIL

GRAIN GRAIN

OIL
RIM

BOUND WATER FREE WATER

WETTABILITY IS AFFECTED BY:

• Composition of pore-lining minerals

• Composition of the fluids

• Saturation history
Effective Permeability
and
Relative Permeability
 Absolute Permeability
• Absolute permeability: is the permeability of a
porous medium saturated with a single fluid (e.g.
Sw=1)

• Absolute permeability can be calculated from the

steady-state flow equation (1D, Linear Flow; Darcy
Units):
k A p
q
L
 Multiphase Flow in Reservoirs

Commonly, reservoirs contain 2 or 3 fluids

• Water-oil systems
• Oil-gas systems
• Water-gas systems
• Three phase systems (water, oil, and gas)
To evaluate multiphase systems, must consider
the effective and relative permeability
Effective permeability:
Is a measure of the conductance of a
porous medium for one fluid phase
when the medium is saturated with
more than one fluid.
• The porous medium can have a distinct and
measurable conductance to each phase
present in the medium

• Effective permeability:
(ko, kg, kw)
 Relative Permeability
Is the ratio of the effective permeability of a fluid at a
given saturation to some base permeability
• Base permeability is typically defined as:
– absolute permeability, k :air permeability, kair

– effective permeability to non-wetting phase at irreducible wetting

phase saturation [e.g. ko(Sw=Swi)]

– because definition of base permeability varies, the definition used

must always be:
• confirmed before applying relative permeability data

• noted along with tables and figures presenting relative

permeability data

Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960

 Relative Permeability Functions

• Wettability and direction of saturation change

Relative Permeability (fraction)

must be considered
•drainage
•imbibition

• Base used to normalize this

relative permeability curve is
kro @ Swi

• As Sw increases, kro decreases

and krw increases until
reaching residual oil
saturation

Modified from NExT, 1999

Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities

• Fluid saturations
• Geometry of the pore spaces and pore
size distribution
• Wettability
• Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition
or drainage)
 Characteristics of Relative
Permeability Functions

• Relative permeability is unique for

different rocks and fluids
• Relative permeability affects the flow
characteristics of reservoir fluids.
• Relative permeability affects the
recovery efficiency of oil and/or gas.
 Applications of
Relative Permeability Functions

• Reservoir simulation
• Flow calculations that involve
multi-phase flow in reservoirs
• Estimation of residual oil (and/or
gas) saturation
Capillary Pressure
WATER-WET OIL-WET

Air Oil

WATER WATER
•The interface between two immiscible liquids is curved, due
to the need to minimize energy.
• In the absence of gravity, it will form a meniscus: a shape of
minimum energy
• The interface can be considered a stretched membrane, that
is always under “tension” and will resist deformation to itself.

•Across the surface of two immiscible fluids there exists a

pressure discontinuity known as capillary pressure
•Pc = Pnw – Pw = Non-wetting phase - Wetting Phase

• Capillary pressure (Pc) = it is the amount of extra pressure

required for the non-wetting phase to place the wetting
phase in the tube.
• Calculating Capillary Pressure
• Pc = Pnw-Pw
• Pnw = ρnwgh
• Pc = (ρnw – ρw)gh
Or
• Pc = 2σcosθ / rc
Where
• ρnw and ρw = specific densities of non-wetting and wetting fluids
• g = gravitational constant
• h = height above free water interface
• σ = interfacial tension
• θ= contact angle between the fluids and the capillary tube
• rc = radius of the capillary
 Reservoir vs Non-Reservoir
• Capillary pressure can be used to distinguish a reservoir rock from
a non-reservoir.
• Remember: a reservoir is any porous and permeable medium
capable of storing hydrocarbons.
– This shows a rock that can hold hydrocarbons or it
does not [Link] hydrocarbons can definitely be
produced.
• Pay is defined as the hydrocarbon-bearing component of the rock
that would produce economically under current conditions.
– Pay does not a reservoir rock type, as the same rock may
be non-Pay elsewhere.
Or Pay v/s Non-Pay
• Exploration and Geological
Applications
⁻ Location of oil/water or gas/water contacts to
help in estimates of volumetric reservoir content.

⁻ Levels of the reservoir in hydraulic continuity.

⁻ The capillary pressure curves are characterized
by a shape factor, there is information available
concerning pore size distribution
• Production Engineering
⁻ Identification of intervals that, at least initially, should produce
water-free hydrocarbons.
⁻ Recognition of levels that have been affected by offset
production (watered out).
⁻ Identification of hydraulic units in pressure communication
(stimulation design).
• Reservoir Engineering
⁻ Definition of oil/water or gas/water contacts to calculate and
map extent of the reservoir.
⁻ Recognition of different rock types with differing values of
bound water volumes.
 WELL LOG (The Bore Hole Image)

Well log is a continuous

record of measurement made
in bore hole respond to
variation in some physical
properties of rocks through
which the bore hole is drilled.
Traditionally Logs are
display on girded papers
shown in figure.
Now a days the log may be
taken as films, images, and in
digital format.
 HISTORY

 1912 Conrad Schlumberger give the idea of using electrical measurements to map subsurface
rock bodies.
 in 1919 Conrad Schlumberger and his brother Marcel begin work on well logs.
 The first electrical resistivity well log was taken in France, in 1927.
 The instrument which was use for this purpose is called SONDE, the sonde was stopped at
periodic intervals in bore hole and the and resistivity was plotted on graph paper.
 In 1929 the electrical resistivity logs are introduce on commercial scale in Venezuela, USA and
Russia
 The Gamma Ray and Neutron Log were begin in 1941
CLASSIFICATION OF LOGS
 LOGS PROVIDE DIRECT & INDIRECT
MEASUREMENT OF :
OPEN-HOLE LOGS GIVES: PRODUCTION LOGS
• Formation Lithology GIVES:
• Formation dip & structure • Flow rate
• Sedimentary environment • Fluid type
• Porosity • Pressure
• Permeability • Temperature
• Hydrocarbon type • Oil & Gas saturation
• Water saturation, hydrocarbon • Points of fluid entry
saturation
 PERMEABLE ZONE LOGS
THE SELF-POTENTIAL(S.P.) LOGS
It is the first log run in the oil
industry.

Principle :
•Measures the change in naturally
occurring potentials as a function of
depth in the bore hole
•Two types of potential that may
contribute to S.P.

•Electrochemical potential
•Electrokinetic potential

SP = -K log(Rmf/Rw )
Objectives :
• Shaliness of the formation
• Differentiate between shale & non shale formations
• Gives the water resistivity(Rw)
GAMMA-RAY LOGS

• A measurement of gamma-ray intensity in the bore hole

due to natural disintegration of U, Th, & K.
• U, Th, & K tend to concentrate in shales and occur least
in clean sands & carbonates.
• Shales appear as excursion to right; clean formation to
the left.
• G-ray curve is good in hard rock regions where SP is
deficient.
• Depth of penetration- 6 inch
• Vertical resolution- 3 ft
APPLICATION OF GR
LOGS

•Depth correlation
•Bed boundaries
•Well to well correlation
•Shale volume estimation

LIMITATIONS
•KCl MUD
using spectral g-ray logging

•LOGGING SPEED
as low as possible
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Objectives
• Determination of Rxo and Rt.
• Seperates the hydrocarbon bearing zones from non-hydrocarbon
bearing zones.
• Gives water saturation using Archie’s relation
Sw = c (Rw/Rt)1/2/ф
Classification Of Resistivity Logging Tools

1) Deep investigation tools

• Non focussed resistivity measurements
I. Normal resistivity
II. Lateral(Gradient) resistivity
• Focussed resistivity measurements
I. Latero resistivity
II. Induction resistivity
2) Shallow investigating tools
• Non-focussed micro-resistivity (Microlog- Normal &
Lateral)
• Focussed micro resistivity(Microlatero log, proximity,
micro spherically focussed)
Tool Nomenclature Depth range of investigation

Micro 1-2”
Shallow 6-10”
Medium 10-25”
Deep >40”
POROSITY LOGS

Three types:
• Density log
• Neutron log
• Sonic log
DENSITY LOG
• Measures the electron density of the formation
• Measures the formation density by sensing the attenuation of
gamma rays between source and the pad mounted detector
applied against the bore hole walls
• Gives the effective porosity
• Depth of penetration- 4 in. ,vertical bed reesolution- 3
ft ,logging speed- 1,800 ft/hr
• Conversion of density to porosity:
ф= (ρma- ρb)/(ρma- ρf)
Where ρb is determined from the log data
ρma and ρf are taken approx.
ρma = 2.65 gm/cc for sand st. & 2.71 gm/cc for lime st.
ρf = 1.1gm/cc for saline water, 0.7-0.9gm/cc for oil & 0.2-0.7
gm/cc for gas & light hydrocarbons.
NEUTRON LOGS

• Measures the formation porosity

by sensing distance fast neutrons
travels in the formation.
• Gives the hydrogen index .
• Records ratio of pulse rates
received at two detectors.
• Depth of investigation- 10 in.
• Vertical resolution- 3 ft
• Logging speed : 1,800 ft/hr
• Gives better average porosity in
conjunction wit density log
ф= (фd + фn)/2
COMBINATION NEUTRON-DENSITY LOGS

• Gas Effect
• An increase in density porosity along with the decrease
in neutron porosity in gas bearing zones is called GAS
EFFECT.
• Used for identification of gas bearing zones.
SONIC LOGS
• Measures the rate of travel of compressional energy in
the formation; transit time variation: 40-150 usec/ft
• Bore hole variation effects eleminated using a dual
transmitter- receiver array
• Vertical resolution :- equals to the span between
receivers(2 ft typically)
• Depth of penetration -1 in.
• Logging speed is 5,000 ft/hr.
• Porosity determination
ф= (∆t - ∆tma)/(∆tf - ∆tma)
Where , ∆t= travel time in the formation
∆tf & ∆tma are the travel time in the fluid and the
matrix.(approx.)
 BASIC INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE
Shale
base line

A
A A

C
C