Chapter Two

Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia

and the Horn
2.1. Human Evolution
 Evolution is the process by which different kinds of living
organisms are believed to have developed from earlier forms
during the history of the earth.
 It addresses how, over the course of time, various plant and
animal species branch off to become entirely new species,

 And how different species are related through complicated family

trees that span millions of years.

 Human evolution provides only a fraction of history of the globe

that had been formed through gradual natural process since about
4.5 billion years before present (B. P.)
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B.
P. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small
beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P.
 Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170
million years B. P. 1
 Then, some primates developed into Pongidae such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, orangutan, & gibbon while others evolved into
Hominidae (human ancestors).
 Cont..
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B.
P. and gradually primates/species evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors).
 Archaeological evidence suggests that East African Rift Valley is a
cradle of humanity.
 Sites of such Archaeological evidences in Ethiopia
are:
 Generally, the Middle Awash River valleys, and the Lower Omo
as well as northern Ethiopia are sites noticed for evidences
related to biological and cultural evolution in Ethiopia.
 Specifically in:
1. Anchar (in West Hararghe):
 A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was
unearthed/discovered in this site in 2007.
2. Middle Awash:
 A fossil named Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years
BP) was discovered in this site.
2
3. Aramis in Afar:
 A fossil named Ardipithecus ramidus (dated 4.2 million B.P.) was discovered
in this place in 1994.
CONT…
5. Hadar in Afar
 Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated 3.18 million years BP)
with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis
looks like bipedal female was discovered in this site in 1974.
 Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake
Turkana. An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in
Afar language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri,
Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
6. Dikika, Mille-Afar
 A three years old child’s fossil, Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to
3.3 million years B.P was discovered in this place.
 The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next
stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to
have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P. Different evidences of the genus
homo have been recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
7. The Lower Omo
 This site is noticeable for the genus Homo, known for the evolution and
development connected with the human brain.
 Thus, a partial skull of a fossil known as Homo habilis, which is derived
from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands/
ability to use hands), dated 1.9 million years BP has been found in the 3
Lower Omo.
CONT…

8. Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb

 A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1.6 million years B. P.)

was discovered at this archaeological site with 900-1100 cc brain size.

 Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then, spread out to the

rest of the world.

[Link] Awash-
 It was also a site of skeleton of Archaic Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human

being, dated 400,000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-
1400cc ,and Homo sapiens idaltu lived about 160, 000 years B.P. was also
discovered in Middle Awash in 1997 .
10. Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish around Lower Omo
 They were archaeological sites for fossils of Homo sapiens- sapiens.

2.2 Cultural evolution

 It is the technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on

human life.
 It can be conventionally grouped into Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings.

 By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be
grouped into 1) Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report
made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), are crude and mono-facial styles, and were
produced by the direct percussion.
2)Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul,
France), produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and 4
mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
 3) Mode III (Sangoon), characterized by flexible and fine form of
production by the use of obsidian.
CONT…

 Examples of the above types of stone tools have been

found in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Fossilized animal bones aged 3. 4 million years B. P.
were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the
oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika in
2010.
 Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and
used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated
2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.
 Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back
to [Link] years B.P, invented fire and started
burial practice. Acheulian tools (over a million years old)
were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.
 Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up
to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central
Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P.
 Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in 5
Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have
offered noteworthy information about Stone Age
CONT..
Sub-periods/Divisions of Stone Age
There are 3 sub-periods of Stone Age:
1. The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
 Dated from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.
 That time was also a period when human beings developed
language with shelter in cave using stone, bone, wood, furs, and
skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
 It was also a period which had seen labor division where males
were identified as hunters and children and females as gatherers.
2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)
Dated from 11, 000-10,000 B. P.
It was a transition between the old stone age and the new stone age.
3. Neolithic (New Stone Age)
 Dated from 10, 000-6, 000 B.P.
 It was a period in which human beings began sedentary way of life/
settled-agricultural society.
 In that period human beings transformed its activities from hunting 6
and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
CONT..
 The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for
sustenance, were reduced by hunting while smaller animals that
were easy to domesticate were easily domesticated. and animals
that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones.
 But the process of domestication took place independently in the
various parts of the world.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn thus people began to cultivate crops like
teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), oil seeds like
nug(Guzotia abyssinica) and plants like enset (Ensete
ventricosum). The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule)
reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots),
slowing down soil exhaustion
 Likewise, Ethiopia and the Horn was one of the regions where
domestication of animals like cattle and use of stone tools (e.g.
in Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and
Barentu in Eritrea) took place.
 Sites of domestication of animals like cattle in Ethiopia were:
Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar, Lalibela Cave and Lake 7
Basaqa near Matahara.
CONT..
 The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones,
beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-
Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu
in Eritrea evinces the existence of Neolithic material culture.
 The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools.
 Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas
and vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on
the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
 Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants
as well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have
been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
 Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around
Lake Basaqa near Matahara.
 Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya
and Futajalon in West Africa were among known places of
domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos 8
indicus) cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the
Horn.
CONT…
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic

diversity accounting for about 90 languages.

 Classification of languages in the region
 The languages of the region are classified into two super families and

many families.
 The two super families are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.

 Afro-Asiatic super family is sub-divided into the following families. These

are
A) Cushitic- Grouped into four branches
o Northern Cushitic : is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern

Eritrea bordering the Sudan.

o Central Cushitic: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant, Hemtanga and

Bilen.
o Eastern Cushitic : This includes Oromiffa, Sidama, Somali, Afar, Ale,

Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata,

Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Saho, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc. 9
o Southern Cushitic : Represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in

Tanzania.
CONT…
B) Semitic:
 It is divided into two:
o North Semitic: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese
border); Tigrigna (spoken in Eritrea and Tigray).
o South Semitic : Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay,
Gafat (extinct), Gurage, and Mesmes (endangered).
C) Omotic:
 It includes Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil,
Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama,Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete,
Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem,
Zayse and other.
 Nilo-Saharan Super family
 It includes linguistic groups like Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-
Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi,
Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
N.B.
10
Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population
movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, and
urbanization affected linguistic processes and have made some
 CONT…
 Settlement patterns and economic formations of people in
Ethiopia and the Horn
 Settlement pattern is the distribution of peoples across the landscape
and is resulted from factors such as:
 Long historical processes
 Environmental, socio-economic and political
processes
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some
people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands.
 For example, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples inhabited the areas
between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where
they dispersed to different directions.
 Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the
South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have
inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. Yet, in
the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.
 In the west, the Nilo-Saharan are largely settled along the Ethiopia-
Sudanese border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as
far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster
11
living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.

CONT…
 In terms of economic activities the people of the region have been
engaged in interlinked and co-existed activities such as agriculture and
pastoralism resulted from the domestication of plants and animals.
 The Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups: sustained sedentary agriculture
at least since 10, 000 years B. P in the plateau areas of the region.
 The major economic activities of the Omotic have been mixed farming and
trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly practiced
pastoralism and fishing.
 Pastoral economy has been practiced in the eastern lowland region since
early periods. In this area the rearing/raising of camel, goat and cattle has
been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and
Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
 While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the
Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba)
Rivers.
 In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic
formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and
hunting.
 For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops have been largely
cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese border since antiquity.
The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been engaged
in shifting cultivating, where sorghum has been a staple food. 12
 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social
values. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with
CONT…

2.4 Religion
Major religions practiced in the region are:
[Link] Religion
 It is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are

attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered

sacred.
 It is practiced among the Oromo-as Waqeffanna, a belief in

the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa; Waqa's

power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. The
major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete
(women or human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana
(sanctity spirit) and other.
 In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of

ever-flowing river and top of mountain respectively, there is

thanks giving festival called Irrecha.
 Revered/respected experts known as Qallu (male) and

Qallitti (female) have maintained link between the Ayyana

and the believers. Qallu's ritual house called galma is 13
located on hilltop or in the groves of large trees.
CONT…

 Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known

as Waa; among the Kambata there is the
Negitaor Aricho Magano (Sky God); among the
Wolayta there is Tosaa (God);
 The Keficho called their Supreme Being Yero and
the spirit Eqo ;
 The Boro-Shinasha believe in super natural power
called Iqa which created everything and presides over the
universe.
 This indigenous religion prescribes praying for the prevention
of drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation.
 The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
Among the Nuer, there are spirits associated with clan-spears
names such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder. 14
CONT…

 The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.

The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban
(Sky God).
 Among sections of the Gurage, there have been
Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and
Damwamwit (health goddess).
 Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
 The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including
Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice
spirit), Wombo (rain spirit) and other.
 To protect people from eating crop before harvesting
Zomboro clan used Diqaysa practice by planting in their
fields sour olive and nubica trees.
 The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna
(prohibited days to work) to protect produce from
disaster. 15
CONT…

[Link]
 It is considered as the expression of the covenant that
Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew).
 Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the
Horn by peoples (eg. Bete-Israel) since early times.
 The Bete-Israel(Jews) in Ethiopia have been practicing Judaism, religious practices,
which are generally recognized as Israelite religion.
 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace their religion from the very ancient migration of
some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps
even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
 There are alternative timelines for the arrival of the Bete-Israel in Ethiopia
such as split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah
after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile,
 And the return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King
Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba
(Sheba).
 Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and
Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
 But the Bete-Israel in Ethiopia have been isolated from mainstream Judiac practice for
at least a millennium and they have been living for centuries in northern and 16
northwestern Ethiopia.
CONT…
3. Christianity
 It became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King
Ezana (r.320-360),who dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares
(Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent-python god), Bahir
(sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity.
 Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers,
Aedesius and Fremenatius (Fremenatos / Kasate Birhane or
Abba Salama).
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in
later part of fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-
486) by the Nine Saints.
 Who were they?
 They were Abuna Aregawwi, Abuna Isaq, Abba Afse, Abba
Pentelwon, Abba Alef, Abba Gubba, Abba Liqanos, Abba
Sehama and Abba Yima’ata.
 Its expansion continued during the Zagwe(1150-1270) period,
in the time of Solomonic dynasty, during the Medieval period
and in the 19th century.
17
CONT…

 Churches and monasteries were established.

 These included Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-
Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea, Debra-Libanos in Shewa,
Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in
Gojjam, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the
way to Harar.
 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the Jesuit
missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
 Yet, this led to bloody conflicts which in turn led to expulsion of the
Jesuits.
 The 19th century was also the time in which Catholic and
Protestant missionaries participated in the expansion of
their respective religions-Catholicism and Protestantism
in Ethiopia.

18
CONT…
 Therefore, as of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also resulted in the
conclusion of treaties between European diplomats and Ethiopian
authorities.
 The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De
Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld
d'Abbadie were active.
 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society
of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant
missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L.
Krapf.
 Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence
of the local people.
 They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They adopted old names
for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as
equivalent to God.
 Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith. These
schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers. They also provided 19
medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers.
CONT…
4. Islam
 When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in
Mecca in 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh
rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of
his early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her
husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future family-Umm Habiba
and Umm Salma to Aksum.
 The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
 In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under
whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will
give relief from what you are suffering."
 The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b.
Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash) in Arabic sources accepted them
from 615-628.
 Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate/return the refugees, but
the king did not comply.
 Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold 20
I would not give up these people who have taken refugees with me.”
CONT…

 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but

through peaceful ways including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on
the Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century.
 In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the
islands developed a sultanate.
 In due course, Muslims settled in other places on the Red
Sea coast.
 It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually
spread among the predominantly pastoral communities
of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers
and merchants.

21
CONT…
 The port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an
important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the present
day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Islam firmly established itself on the coastal areas by the eighth and
ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern
Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in the
footsteps of traders.
 In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a
Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played very important role in
the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn. An important Islamic center in this region/Bale
is Sof Umar cave.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the eighth century A. D.
through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
 The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers
have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and 22
literature of local Muslims.