GROUP-16
109-TUSHAR KOTWANI
110-ADITYA KUMAR
111-SAMINA
112-MEHUL LAKSHKAR
113-PRANAV LAKSHKAR
114-ADITYA LILANI
115-RAIMA LODHI
119-MIQDAD
STATISTICAL INVESTIGATION
• AN INFORMATION GATHERING AND LEARNING
PROCESS THAT IS UNDERTAKEN TO SEEK
MEANING FROM AND TO LEARN MORE ABOUT
ANY ASPECT OF THE REAL, AS WELL AS TO
HELP MAKE INFORMED DECISIONS AND TAKE
INFORMED ACTIONS.
ERRORS IN STATISTICAL INVESTIGATION
• Error (statistical error) describes the difference between a
value obtained from a data collection process and the ‘true’
value.
• There are two types of errors:
• Sampling errors: which arises when only a part of the
population is used to represent the whole population.
• Non-Sampling errors: Non-sampling error is all other errors in
the estimate. Some examples of causes of non-sampling error
are non-response, a badly designed questionnaire,
respondent bias and processing errors.
FACTORS AFFECTING SAMPLING ERROR
SAMPLING ERROR IS AFFECTED BY A NUMBER OF FACTORS INCLUDING:
SAMPLE SIZE - LARGER SAMPLE SIZES DECREASE THE SAMPLING ERROR, HOWEVER THIS DECREASE IS NOT
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL
SAMPLE DESIGN - VARIOUS SAMPLE DESIGN OPTIONS ALSO AFFECT THE SIZE OF THE SAMPLING ERROR. FOR
EXAMPLE, STRATIFICATION REDUCES SAMPLING ERROR WHEREAS CLUSTER SAMPLING TENDS TO INCREASE IT.
SAMPLING FRACTION - OF MUCH LESSER INFLUENCE IS THE SAMPLING FRACTION BUT AS THE SAMPLE SIZE
INCREASES AS A FRACTION OF THE POPULATION, THE SAMPLING ERROR SHOULD DECREASE.
VARIABILITY WITHIN THE POPULATION - . MORE VARIABLE POPULATIONS GIVE RISE TO LARGER ERRORS AS THE
SAMPLES OR THE ESTIMATES CALCULATED FROM DIFFERENT SAMPLES ARE MORE LIKELY TO HAVE GREATER
VARIATION. THE EFFECT OF THE VARIABILITY WITHIN THE POPULATION CAN BE REDUCED BY INCREASING THE
SAMPLE SIZE TO MAKE IT MORE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE SURVEY POPULATION.
MEASURING OF SAMPLING ERRORS
• SAMPLING ERROR = CONFIDENCE LEVEL × [STANDARD DEVIATION OF POPULATION / (SQUARE ROOT OF SAMPLE SIZE)]
• RECORD THE SAMPLE SIZE THIS IS THE SIMPLEST NUMBER TO FIND FOR THE SAMPLING ERROR FORMULA. REVIEW
YOUR STUDY TO FIND THE SAMPLE SIZE. FOR EXAMPLE, IF YOUR SAMPLE INCLUDED 60 PEOPLE, USE 60 IN THE
FORMULA.
• FIND THE STANDARD DEVIATION OF THE POPULATION STANDARD DEVIATION MEASURES THE DISTANCE BETWEEN EACH
OF YOUR DATA POINTS AND THE MEAN. USE THE PARAMETERS OF YOUR POPULATION AND THE AVERAGE VALUE OF
YOUR DATA TO CALCULATE THE STANDARD DEVIATION.
• USE THE CONFIDENCE INTERVAL FOR YOUR SAMPLE SIZE. CONFIDENCE INTERVALS SPECIFY THE RANGE OF VALUES IN A
SAMPLE THAT ARE LIKELY TO CONTAIN THE ACCURATE POPULATION MEAN. TAKE HALF OF THE CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
AND MULTIPLY IT BY THE SQUARE ROOT OF THE SAMPLE SIZE. THEN DIVIDE THIS BY THE SAMPLE STANDARD DEVIATION
TO FIND YOUR CONFIDENCE LEVEL. FINALLY, USE A CONFIDENCE LEVEL TABLE TO FIND YOUR EQUIVALENT SCORE.
• FIND THE SQUARE ROOT OF YOUR SAMPLE SIZE. YOUR SAMPLE SIZE MAY BE A PERFECT SQUARE IF ITS SQUARE ROOT
IS A WHOLE NUMBER. FOR EXAMPLE, FOUR IS A PERFECT SQUARE BECAUSE IT HAS A SQUARE ROOT OF TWO, WHILE 10
ISN'T A PERFECT SQUARE BECAUSE IT HAS A SQUARE ROOT OF 3.16.
STANDARD ERROR
• THE MOST COMMONLY USED MEASURE OF SAMPLING ERROR IS CALLED
THE STANDARD ERROR (SE).
• THE STANDARD ERROR IS A MEASURE OF THE SPREAD OF ESTIMATES
AROUND THE “TRUE VALUE”.
• IN PRACTISE, ONLY ONE ESTIMATE IS AVAILABLE, SO THE STANDARD
ERROR NOT BE CALCULATED DIRECTLY.
• HOWEVER, IF THE POPULATION VARIANCE IS KNOWN THE STANDARD
ERROR CAN BE DERIVEDMATHEMATICALLY.
NON-SAMPLING ERROR
• NON-SAMPLING ERROR ARE ALL THE OTHER ERRORS
IN THE ESTIMATE.
• THEY CAN OCCUR AT ANY STAGE.
• SAMPLING ERROR CAN BE MEASURED
MATHEMATICALLY BUT MEASURING OF NON-
SAMPLING ERROR IS DIFFICULT.
• THEY CAN HAPPEN IN CENSUS AN SURVEYS .
NON-
SAMPLING
ERRORS
SYSTEMATIC VARIABLE
SYSTEMATIC
• SYSTEMATIC ERROR(CALLED BIAS) MAKES SURVEY RESULTS
UNREPRESENTATIVE OF THE TARGET POPULATION BY
DISTROING THE SURVEY ESTIMATES IN ONE DIRECTION.
• FOR EXAMPLE, IF THE TARGET POPULATION IS THE
POPULATION OF AUSTRALIA BUT THE SURVEY POPULATION IS
JUST MALES THEN THE SURVEYS RESULTS WILL NOT BE
REPRESENTATIVE OF THE TARGET POPULATION DUE TO
SYSTEMATIC BIAS IN THE SURVEY FRAME.
VARIABLES
• VARIABLE ERROR CAN DISTORT THE RESULTS ON ANY GIVEN OCCASION
BUT TENDS TO BALANCE OUT ON AVERAGE.
TYPES OF NON SAMPLING ERROR
NON-SAMPLING ERROR IS ALL OTHER ERRORS IN THE ESTIMATE. SOME EXAMPLES OF CAUSES OF NON-
SAMPLING ERROR ARE NON-RESPONSE, A BADLY DESIGNED QUESTIONNAIRE, RESPONDENT BIAS AND
PROCESSING ERRORS.
• NON RESPONSE BIAS
• RESPONDENT BIAS
• PROCESSING ERRORS
• QUESTIONNAIRE PROBLEMS
• MISINTERPRETATION
• TIME PERIOD BIAS
NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
RESPONDENT
BIAS
Refusals to answer questions,
memory biases and inaccurate
information because
respondents believe they are
protecting their personal interest
and integrity may lead to a bias
in the estimates. The way the
respondent interprets the
questionnaire and the wording of
the answer the respondent gives
can also cause inaccuracies.
PROCESSING ERRORS
There are four stages in the processing of the data where errors may occur:
data grooming, data capture, editing and estimation.
1. Data Grooming: involves preliminary checking before entering the data
onto the processing system in the capture stage
2. Data Capture: input of data into a (computer) database . This may lead
to introduction of errors into the database. Inadequate checking and
quality management at this stage can introduce data loss and data
duplication
3. Editing: the purpose is to eliminate and/or reduce errors
4. Estimations : Inappropriate edit checks and inaccurate weights in the
estimation procedure can also introduce errors to the data.
To minimise these errors, processing staff should be given adequate training
and realistic workloads.
HOW DOES NON-SAMPLING ERROR OCCURS
QUESTIONNAIRE PROBLEMS
THE CONTENT AND WORDING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE MAY BE MISLEADING AND THE LAYOUT OF THE
QUESTIONNAIRE MAY MAKE IT DIFFICULT TO ACCURATELY RECORD RESPONSES. QUESTIONS SHOULD
NOT BE LOADED, DOUBLE-BARRELLED, MISLEADING OR AMBIGUOUS, AND SHOULD BE DIRECTLY
RELEVANT TO THE OBJECTIVES OF THE SURVEY
NON-RESPONDENT PROBLEMS
NON-RESPONSE BIAS IS A TYPE OF BIAS THAT OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE ARE UNWILLING OR UNABLE TO
RESPOND TO A SURVEY DUE TO A FACTOR THAT MAKES THEM DIFFER GREATLY FROM PEOPLE WHO
RESPOND. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NON-RESPONDENTS AND RESPONDENTS IS USUALLY AN
INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE LACK OF RESPONSE
REMEDIES FOR NON SAMPLING ERROR
• PROCESSING ERROR: TO MINIMIZE THESE ERRORS, PROCESSING STAFF SHOULD BE GIVEN ADEQUATE
TRAINING AND REALISTIC WORKLOADS.
• INTERVIEWER ERROR: CAREFUL QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN AND EFFECTIVE QUESTIONNAIRE TESTING CAN
OVERCOME THESE PROBLEMS TO SOME EXTENT.
• NON-REACTION ERROR: TO IMPROVE RESPONSE RATES, CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN IN DESIGNING THE
QUESTIONNAIRES, TRAINING OF INTERVIEWERS.
• QUESTIONNAIRE PROBLEMS: QUESTIONS SHOULD NOT BE LOADED, DOUBLE-BARRELED, MISLEADING OR
AMBIGUOUS, AND SHOULD BE DIRECTLY RELEVANT TO THE OBJECTIVES OF THE SURVEY.