Chapter 2

Frameworks for thought and practice

in I-O psychology
 Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe the focus of structuralism and functionalism and indicate their current relevance
• Explain and compare how behaviourism, psychoanalysis and cognitive psychology study the human
psyche and personality
• Compare the study of human behaviour and personality according to the trait, biological, African and
Eastern approaches
• Explain humanist and positive psychology assumptions and their value in studying well-being
• Discuss and compare the assumptions of gestalt psychology, eco-systemic, and cultural approaches to
explain human behaviour and personality
• Evaluate the meaning and value of nature, nurture and context when used in psychology
• Explain paradigms specific to I-O psychology with regard to employee and organisational management
• Discuss postmodernism and constructivism as approaches to adapt or change the meaning of
knowledge
• Reason how the concepts of context and culture relate to diversity management in the work context.
Paradigm: a pattern or model – in psychology an
approach or framework for understanding the human
mind.

Epistemology: a knowledge base – the study of

knowledge.

Psychological theory: exists within a certain paradigm –

are associated with certain paradigms.
 Psychological schools of thought
– Structuralism (1875-1920s)
• Influenced by the physical/natural sciences.
• Focus on studying the structure of the human mind or
consciousness.
• Analysed consciousness into basic elements, for example,
feelings, physical sensations, thoughts and the relationship
between these elements.
• Use method of introspection ─ self-observation of one’s
immediate experience of a stimulus, for example, write down
your sensations when you look at a red rose.
 Structuralism, cont.
• Criticism: Too simplistic, subjective approach and
unreliable method to understand and measure behaviour
fully.
• Structuralism’s great contribution was to:
• Establish psychology as a science
• Scientific inquiry through experimental research
• The use of systematic methods to identify, analyse and
describe psychological phenomena.
 Functionalism (1888–1912)
• Emphasised the functions of the consciousness, the
awareness of experiences, for example, in helping people
to adapt.
• Influenced by evolution theory (Darwin) – believed that
the human mind is not static, but an adaptable process.
• Evolution theory facilitates study of individual
differences.
 Functionalism, cont.
• Used observation tests, animal research, experiments
and statistics in research and assessment.
• Studied individual differences through heredity and
mental abilities.
• Criticised for only emphasising functional behaviour and
learning.
• Methods of measurement and research still used in
applied psychology.
 Behaviourism (1920–1960s
ongoing)
• Watson, Skinner and Bandura
• Referred to as ‘first force’ in psychology.
• Human nature and the mind can only be studied objectively
through observable behaviour.
• People react to stimuli from their internal and external
environments, creating stimulus and response associations.
• A belief that environmental influences are deterministic because
people are reactive.
• Recognised the role of internal, cognitive processes and the role of
genetics in the learning process.
 Behaviourism, cont.
• Emphasised association between stimuli and responses.
• These associations form the basis of mental processes and
influence behaviour.
• Learning approach: environmental and other influences
provide stimuli which people respond to.
• If such responses are rewarded or strengthened certain
responses are then formed - classical conditioning
(Stimulus–response (S–R) approach) (Watson).
 Behaviourism, cont.
• Operant conditioning (Skinner): People (organisms) can influence
their behaviour / learning, for example, only repeating behaviour if
they think they will like the consequences.
• Social cognitive approaches: a person can have cognitive
control over the stimuli and the responses in order to determine
how learning happens (stimulus-organism-response (SOR)
principle.
• In observational learning (modelling), social and cognitive
processes like perception and expectation largely determine how
learning takes place.
 Behaviourism, cont.
• Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy, or a person’s beliefs that they
can achieve their goals, is prominent in applications of career
counselling.
• Personality in behaviourism:
• Characterised by acquired observable behaviours and thoughts
• People’s environments and circumstances are deterministic
causes of what they become.
• People are continually learning.
• Used in many applied areas of psychology and industrial
psychology, for example, learning and training.
 Gestalt (1900-1930)
• Gestalt emerged in opposition to structuralism.
• Emphasised the wholeness (Gestalt) of experience and
not just certain elements.
• The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
• Illustrated Gestalt principle with two flashing lights, which
created an illusion in movement perception – in that the
lights were seen as one light only, the phi-phenomenon.
 Gestalt, cont.
• All aspects of the human mind and behaviour function
according to an integrated whole.
• All domains of development and functioning, for
example, physical and social, must be considered in the
study of personality.
• Gestalt meanings applied to give totality and integration
in meaning.
• Gestalt principles are applied to the work context, for
example, understanding culture in groups or
organisational climate.
 The psychoanalytic paradigm
(1885–1960s and ongoing)
• Psychoanalytic school of thought is viewed as the ‘second
force’ in psychology – founded by Sigmund Freud.
• Studying the psyche by analysing unconscious processes
in mental functions and psychological disorders.
• Uses process of free association.
• Within the three levels of consciousness, three other
psychic structures direct human behaviour; the id, ego
and super-ego.
 Three levels of consciousness

The conscious comprises people’s awareness and contact with

reality and entails the ego functions.

The pre-conscious involves content just beneath the surface,

which can be retrieved, for example, a name.

The unconscious contains desires, memories and thoughts that

are repressed deep below the surface or consciousness, for
example, trauma.
 Freudian psychoanalysis: Three
levels of consciousness and related
psychic structures

Figure 2.3 (p. 53)

 Three psychic structures
The id contains the primitive biological drives, for example, sex,
and eating – situated in the unconscious and directed at
obtaining immediate gratification.

The ego houses the centre of conscious and realistic thoughts,

behaviour and experiences.

The super-ego represents people’s morality and conscience, for

example, feelings of guilt and applies social standards to
distinguish right from wrong.
 The psychoanalytic paradigm,
cont.
• Adult behaviours may result from how conflicts in and
between psychic structures have been resolved during
personality development.
• A function and result of unconscious conflicts can be seen
in how people use defence mechanisms, for example,
projection (transfer) of own faults on others, see Table
2.1, page 55/56.
• Understanding unconscious processes and resulting
conflicts, etc. leads to deeper understanding of issues.
 The psychoanalytic paradigm,
cont.
• Personality/behaviour consists of and results from the
functions and conflicts in and between psychic structures,
and how unconscious conflict is resolved.
• Personality development is centred on certain early psycho-
sexual stages between birth to approximately six years, see
Table 2.2 page 57.
• Psychodynamic theorists after Freud showed influence of his
ideas. See Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious.
• In the work context, used to understand the underlying
dynamics in individual and group/organisational behaviour.
 Humanism (1950s ongoing)
• Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
• Humanism is a person-oriented approach.
• Focus on what it means to be human – integrated, whole
beings with worth, potential, are rational and thinking.
• People strive for psychological growth, self-actualisation,
autonomy and self-fulfilment.
• Regarded as the ‘third force’ in psychology.
• Developed against backdrop of increasing technology and
growth in the world.
 Humanism, cont.
• Personality development centres on the personal experiences of
individuals, which are continually evaluated and integrated into
the emerging self-concept.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of motivational needs where the highest
motive for self-actualisation is the need to fulfil one’s potential.
• The human-management relations approach can be associated
with humanist principles.
• Emphasis on the employee as a person who wants to be
recognised, supported and enjoy personal growth.
 Cognitive psychology
• Developed 1950s onwards in response to behaviourism.
• Signalled a return to studying consciousness but referring to it as
cognition.
• Focus on higher mental processes.
• Focus on cognition, and the relationship between the body and
the mind.
• How do people form their cognitive constructs (their own
understanding of the world)?
• Increasing digitalisation has facilitated the use of cognitive
perspectives.
 Cognitive psychology, cont.
• Cognitive constructs give meaning to people through that which
they can understand and anticipate in life.
• People use cognitive processes to process, interpret and explain
information.
• Personality is formed, maintained and functions within a system
of cognitive constructs that people develop.
• Popular approach – used in assessment, counselling and
influencing people.
• Important in forming and changing attitudes, for example, in
organisational change.
 Biological and evolutionary
perspectives
• Biological psychology is also referred to as biopsychology,
physiological psychology or neuroscience.
• Focus on how biological processes influence people’s behaviour,
feelings and thinking.
• Emphasis on genetics and neurological processes.
• Evolutionary psychology - human behaviour and attributes are
predetermined or genetically programmed to direct people to act
and think in certain ways.
• It affirms the mutual relationship between body and mind.
 Positive psychology
• Positive psychology – 1998 onwards – Martin Seligman.
• Study of human mind should focus on strengths and virtues in people.
• Focus on self-knowledge and self-awareness.
• Does not deny weaknesses in people – understanding and integrating the
positive aspects of human functioning with the negative aspects of human
behaviour.
• No theory on personality as such – agrees with the assumptions of (Rogers
and Maslow) on positive regard and self-actualising aspects in personality.
• Paradigm emphasising wellbeing.
• Focus on internal strengths and virtues in people and organisations to
promote health and optimal functioning.
 Trait psychology
• Theory on personality research and assessment.
• Trait concepts based on a broad base of psychological knowledge
(eclectic).
• Human behaviour characterised by enduring traits and patterns of
behaviour.
• Traits considered to be neuro-psychic structures that indicate
certain attributes and behaviour in people.
• Various trait models: e.g. Three-, Five- and 16- to describe
personality.
Trait descriptions from the Five-
Factor Model

Table 2.3 (p. 69)

 Trait psychology, cont.
• Trait research has identified many traits, for example, motivation,
intelligence, abilities, interests, values, managerial behaviours,
leadership, entrepreneurial.
• Used in psychological assessment – personality questionnaires
and psychological research in many fields.
• In I-O psychology, it is important in employee relations, health
and growth.
• Lacks the ability to explain the human mind as an integrated
phenomena.
 Socio-cultural approach
• The influence of socio-cultural factors on human behaviour.
• Culture refers to a system of acquired knowledge, habits, rules,
norms, communication, beliefs and values that are shared in a
specific community.
• A cultural approach in psychology emphasises the need to
consider the context and relevance of knowledge and practice.
• The meanings of culture an important indicator for peoples’
preferred behaviour and motivation to act in certain ways.
 Socio-cultural approach, cont.
• In modern organisational psychology, social factors in organisations are
emphasised and organisational culture is considered important in
socialisation.
• In South Africa, such change interventions may involve establishing
multicultural or cross-cultural management and leadership teams that
are not dominated by any one cultural style.
• Personality isn’t integrated into one theory; mutual influences exist
between personality and culture.
• Cannot be assumed that a specific cultural group will necessarily share
the same characteristics and behaviours.
 Emic research:
studying personality
in depth in specific
cultures.

Etic research:
comparing
personality across
cultures.
 An African approach
• Unique cultural or indigenous African context and thinking in
explaining human behaviour and personality.
• African psychologists have asked the question ‘of which
psychology is African psychology the psychology of?’
• Understanding the human psyche is to understand the
relatedness of people to the greater cosmos, the metaphysical,
nature, God and people.
• Macrocosmos – spiritual
• Mesocosmos – individual and collective imagination / metaphysical
reality
• Microcosmos – individual’s daily life.
 An African approach, cont.
• Importance of the collective and holism.
• The emphasis on communal identity and social order does not
exclude needs for independence or self-actualisation.
• Ubuntu is central to true ethos of being African: reflects in
interpersonal and interactional behaviour through
demonstrations of empathy, forgiveness and sharing.
• No personality structure is offered but is viewed as purposeful
behaviour, a holistic concept of interdependent physical, mental
and spiritual dimensions in harmony with the laws of nature,
history and life.
• Spiritual and social interconnectedness.
African and Western views of the
world and humankind

Table 2.4 (p. 75)

 Eastern/Asia approaches
• Eastern psychologies influenced by religion and philosophy, for
example, Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Emphasis on various states of consciousness, less emphasis on the
I or ego-identity of people
• An emphasis on collectivism, unity and connection in and with
the cosmos, nature and other people.
• Personality in some Eastern psychologies is denied as a concept in
the Western sense of an individualised self.
• Personality adjustment and psychological well-being is optimal in
the person who has developed a complete state of consciousness.
 An eco-systemic perspective
• An eco-systemic approach is not a paradigm, but a way to think
about phenomena.
• A system consists of its subsystems, attributes and relationships
and the interaction between these elements.
• Human behaviour can only be understood if the context is
considered.
• Important to understand and consider the interaction and
relationships between all possible factors that define, explain
and influence the context of the functioning of a system – for
example, a person, family, work group, organisation.
• Few things remain static, they are dynamic.
 An eco-systemic perspective,
cont.
• Emphasises the following principles:
• Gestalt
• Holism
• Connectedness or interrelatedness
• Contextualisation
• Personality is seen as a fluid concept – it depends on the
individuals unique construction of reality.
• Consider the influences of all the subsystems on the self-
system (person).
• Work organisations are living systems.
Organisations are living socio-
technical systems

Figure 2.5 (p. 80)

 Utilising multiple perspectives

Metapsychology Scientific investigation of psychology as a science.

Metascience in any discipline refers to theories about

theories in that science.

Metatheoretical assumptions need to be verified by research

and practice.
 Utilising multiple perspectives

Universal truths do not apply to all individuals or groups.

Postmodernism
Constructivism – people cognitively create their own
constructs.

Deconstructivism – existing meaning can be changed by

reinterpreting it.

Social constructivism – knowledge and meaning derived from

social interaction.
Thinking frameworks related to the
nature of work and employees.

Thinking frameworks related to

employee and organisational
management.