Engineering Thermodynamics
(Entropy)
01ME0404
Entropy is thermodynamics property of working substance
Entropy is function of a quantity of heat which shows the
possibility of conversion of heat into work
The maximum entropy means there is minimum availability
of heat for conversion into work
The minimum entropy means there is maximum availability
Introduction for conversion into work
Entropy is the measure of disorder of system
Entropy of gas is greater than the entropy of liquid and
entropy of liquid is greater than the entropy of solid
Entropy Measure of randomness in the system
Mathematically,S Q
T
Entropy is property of system.
For reversible process between state 1 and 2, the change in
entropy is given by,
The change in entropy for the system may be positive,
Characteristi negative or zero (depending on the heat absorption,
cs of rejection or absence)
entropy Entropy is point function, independent on path of the
process.
The increase of entropy during the process is a measure of
the loss of availability of the energy of the system.
Entropy is extensive property.
The entropy is a measure the lack of information about a
system.
The entropy of a pure substance approaches zero at the
Characteristic absolute zero temperature.
s of entropy
The cyclic integration of is equal to zero for a reversible
process.
For any reversible process,
Clausius
theorem
Consider a closed curve ABCDA representing a reversible
cycle as shown in Fig.
Let, closed cycle ABCDA is divided into a number of small
Carnot cycles by drawing adiabatic and isothermal lines in
such a way that, Algebraic sum of heat transferred during
Clausius the sets of isothermal processes of Carnot cycles is equal to
theorem heat transferred during the original reversible cycle (ABCDA).
For the elemental Carnot cycle 1-2-3-4 receives heat δQH1 at
temperature TH1 during reversible isothermal process 1-2 and
Q1reversible
rejects heat δQL1 at temperature TL1 during Q2
According to Kelvin Temp Scale
isothermal process 3-4. T1 T2
If heat supplied is taken as positive and heat rejected as
negative.
Q1 Q2
0
T1 T2
For all such small Carnot cycles
Clausius
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
theorem
T1
T2 1 T1
T2 2 T1
T2 3
....
T1
0
T2 n
The summation of all such n cycles will be…
Q
T R 0
A reversible heat engine absorbs heat from two
thermal reservoirs at constant temperatures of
800 K and 550 K, rejects heat to a reservoir at 300
K. Calculate the thermal efficiency and heat
supplied by each thermal reservoirs when the
engine produces 80 kW and rejects 55 kJ / sec to
Numerical 1 heat sink.
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Given Data:
T1 = 800 K, T2 = 550 K, W = 80 kW, T3 = 300 K, Q3 = 55
kJ / s
Total heat supplied to engine = Q1 + Q2
Work produced (W) = (Q1 + Q2) – Q3
80 = Q1 + Q2 – 55
Numerical 1 Q1 + Q2 = 135 kJ/s
Efficiency of heat engine,
For reversible heat engine, as per Clausius theorem
Numerical 1
Entropy is a
property
Let us consider a system undergoing a reversible process
from state 1 to state 2 along path A and then from state 2 to
the original state 1 along path B as shown in Fig.
Applying the Clausius theorem to this reversible cyclic
process,
Entropy is a
property
Hence when the system passes through the cycle 1-A-2-B-1,
we have
Now consider another reversible cycle in which the system changes
from state 1 to state 2 along path A, but returns from state 2 to the
original state 1 along a different path C. For this reversible cyclic
process, we Have
Entropy is a
property From above equation we have,
Above equation indicates that no restriction is imposed on paths,
except that they must be reversible, the quantity ( ) is a function
of the initial and final states of the system and is independent of
the path of the process. Hence it represents a property of the
When a system undergoes a complete cyclic process, the
integral of around the cycle is less than zero or equal to
zero.
Inequality of
Clausius Consider a reversible engine R and irreversible engine I
working between two thermal reservoir at temperature TH
and TL.
Efficiency of reversible engine,
Efficiency of irreversible engine,
We know that efficiency of reversible engine is more than
Inequality of irreversible engine under same temperature limit.
Clausius
Inequality of We know heat added should be positive and heat rejected
Clausius should be negative.
According to Clausius theorem, for reversible cycle,
Results for reversible and irreversible cycle,
Inequality of This expression known as Clausius inequality.
Clausius
Using second law of thermodynamics check the
following and also indicate nature of cycle.
a) Heat engine receiving 1000 kJ of heat from a
reservoir at 500 K and rejecting 700 kJ heat to
a sink at 27 0C.
b) Heat engine receiving 1000 kJ of heat from a
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reservoir at 500 K and rejecting 600 kJ of heat
to a sink at 27 0C.
Given Data:
a) Q1 = 1000 kJ, Q2 = 700 kJ, T1 = 500 K, T2 = 300 K
b) Q1 = 1000 kJ, Q2 = 600 kJ, T1 = 500 K, T2 = 300 K
• Applying clausius inequality to the cycle,
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• Cycle is irreversible.
• Applying clausius inequality to the cycle,
• Cycle is reversible.
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Constant volume process
Change of Constant pressure process
Entropy of
Constant temperature process
different
processes Reversible adiabatic process
Polytropic process
Constant volume process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
The heat supplied at constant volume,
Change of Small change in heat supplied
Entropy of
different
processes Dividing both sides by T,
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Constant Pressure process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
The heat supplied at constant pressure,
Change of Small change in heat supplied
Entropy of
different
processes Dividing both sides by T,
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Constant Temperature process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
We know that,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Reversible Adiabatic process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Change of In adiabatic process, heat is neither be supplied nor be
Entropy of rejected by the system.
different
processes
Irreversible Adiabatic process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Increase of entropy,
For irreversible process always results in increase in
Change of entropy
Entropy of
different
processes Mathematically,
Polytropic process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
We know that,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Reversible process is defined as a process that can be
reversed without leaving any change on the
surroundings.
Reversible process passes through a continuous
Reversible series of equilibrium states.
and
Irreversible
process
Process that are not reversible are called irreversible
process.
System passes through a sequence of non –
equilibrium states
Reversible The factors that cause a process to be irreversible.
and Friction
Irreversible Free expansion
process Mixing of two gases
Heat transfer between finite
temperature difference
Electric resistance
Chemical reactions
The entropy of an isolated system during a process
always increases or (in the limiting case of reversible
process) remains constant. (S)Universe 0
Principle of Mathematically,
increase of Consider the system undergoing a cyclic process. The
entropy system complete the cycle in two different ways.
or Cycle consists of two reversible path A and B
Entropy change
Cycle consists of reversible process A and irreversible
of universe
process C
Cycle 1-A-2-B-1 is reversible
A – Reversible Process
Cycle 1-A-2-C-1 is irreversible
B – Reversible Process
C- Irreversible Process
For reversible cycle 1 – A – 2 – B – 1,
Principle of
increase of
entropy
or For irreversible cycle 1 – A – 2 – C – 1,
Entropy
change of From above two equations,
universe
But process B is reversible process. So,
Principle of
increase of
entropy
(For any irreversible
or
process)
Entropy
change of But for reversible process.
universe
In above equation, equality sign represents reversible and
inequality sign represents irreversible process.
Principle of But for isolated system, δQ = 0
increase of
entropy
or For reversible isolated process,
Entropy For irreversible isolated process,
change of
So it may be stated that entropy of an isolated system
universe
always increases with every irreversible process and
remains constant when the process is reversible.
The entropy of an isolated system can never decrease.
Now, consider any system and its surrounding within a
single boundary.
Principle of The combination of system and surrounding within a single
increase of boundary is called the universe.
entropy Applying the principle of increase in entropy,
or (dS)Universe ≥ 0
Boundar
System at
Entropy Where, (dS)Universe
temperature T y of
= (dS)system + (dS)Surrounding
change of Universe
universe Q
Surroundings
at temperature
T0 0
For reversible process,
Principle of
increase of
entropy
or Total change in entropy for the combined system,
Entropy
change of
universe
But T > T0
Principle of
increase of
entropy or Entropy of an universe increases if the system
change in undergoes an irreversible process.
entropy of For T = T0
universe
Mixing of two fluids
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
Maximum work obtained from two finite bodies
Applications Maximum work obtainable from a finite body and thermal
of entropy energy reservoir (TER)
principle Minimum work required for refrigerator operates between
two finite bodies
Isothermal dissipation of work
Adiabatic dissipation of work
Mixing of two
fluids
For isolated system, no heat transfer with surroundings
Mixing of two Entropy change of fluid 1 in subsystem 1
fluids
Here, T1 > Tf , so (ΔS)1 will be negative.
Entropy change of fluid 2 in subsystem 2
Mixing of two Here, T2 < Tf , so (ΔS)2 will be positive.
fluids
Entropy change of surroundings:
(ΔS)surroundings = 0 (for isolated system)
Entropy change of universe
Mixing of two
fluids Put value of Tf in above equation,
For same fluid and same masses
Mixing of two Put above value in the (ΔS)universe equation,
fluids
Entropy of universe always positive because,
So (ΔS) = 0, from principle of increase of entropy,
Mixing of two mixing fluid process is irreversible.
fluids
Heat transfer
through a Entropy change of reservoir 1
finite
temperature
difference Entropy change of reservoir 2
Entropy change of surroundings:
(ΔS)surroundings = 0 (for isolated system)
Heat transfer
Entropy change of universe
through a
finite
temperature
difference
Here, T1 > T2, so (∆S)universe is positive from principle of
increase of entropy. So the process is irreversible.
A cool body at temperature T1 is brought in
contact with high temperature reservoir at
temperature T2. Body comes in equilibrium with
reservoir at constant pressure. Considering heat
capacity of body as C, show that the entropy
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change of universe can be given as:
• Heat absorbed by cold body (Q1) = C (T2 – T1)
• Entropy change of body 1
• Entropy change of reservoir
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• Entropy change of universe
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Maximum
work obtained
from two finite
bodies
Heat is obtained from the source
Maximum Heat is rejected to sink
work obtained
from two finite
Work is produced by heat engine
bodies
Work W depends on Tf. Work produced will be
maximum when Tf is minimum.
Maximum
Entropy change of body 1
work obtained
from two finite
bodies Entropy change of body 2
Entropy change of engine
Maximum
work obtained Entropy change of universe
from two finite
bodies
From principle of increase of entropy
Maximum
work obtained For maximum work, Tf is minimum. For Tf to be
from two finite
minimum,
bodies
Maximum
work obtained
from two finite For maximum work,
bodies
Maximum
work
obtainable
from a finite
body and
Thermal
Energy
Reservoir
(TER)
Heat absorbed from heat source
Maximum
work
obtainable Heat is rejected to sink
from a finite
body and Work is produced by heat engine
Thermal
Energy
Reservoir Entropy change of body 1
(TER)
Maximum Entropy change of TER
work
obtainable Entropy change of engine
from a finite
body and
Thermal Entropy change of universe
Energy
Reservoir
(TER)
Maximum From principle of increase of entropy
work
obtainable
from a finite
body and For maximum work,
Thermal
Energy
Reservoir
(TER)
Maximum
work
obtainable
from a finite
body and
Thermal
Energy
Reservoir
(TER)
Minimum
work required
for
refrigerator
operates
between two
finite bodies
Heat is absorbed from body 2
Minimum
work required Heat is consuming by body 1
for
refrigerator
operates Work is supplied to refrigerator
between two
finite bodies
Minimum Work W depends on Tf. Work required will be minimum
work required when Tf is minimum.
for
refrigerator Entropy change of body 1
operates
between two Entropy change of body 2
finite bodies
Minimum Entropy change of refrigerator
work required
for
refrigerator Entropy change of universe
operates
between two
finite bodies
From principle of increase of entropy
Minimum
work required
for
refrigerator For maximum work, Tf is minimum. For Tf to be
operates minimum,
between two
finite bodies
Minimum
work required
for
refrigerator
operates For minimum work,
between two
finite bodies
Isothermal
dissipation of The flow of current represents work transfer.
work
According to the first law
At steady state, entropy change of resistor (system)
The surroundings, absorbs heat Q from resistor, at
temperature T.
So entropy change of surroundings,
Isothermal
dissipation of
work
Entropy change of universe
Adiabatic
dissipation of
work
Entropy change of system
Entropy change of surroundings,
Adiabatic
dissipation of Entropy change of universe
work
Constant volume process
Constant pressure process
Change of
Entropy of Constant temperature process
different Reversible adiabatic process
processes
Irreversible adiabatic process
Polytropic process
Constant volume process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
The heat supplied at constant volume,
Change of Small change in heat supplied
Entropy of
different
processes Dividing both sides by T,
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Constant Pressure process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
The heat supplied at constant pressure,
Change of Small change in heat supplied
Entropy of
different
processes Dividing both sides by T,
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Constant Temperature process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
We know that,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Reversible Adiabatic process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Change of In adiabatic process, heat is neither be supplied nor be
Entropy of rejected by the system.
different
processes
Irreversible Adiabatic process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Increase of entropy,
For irreversible process always results in increase in
Change of entropy
Entropy of
different
processes Mathematically,
Polytropic process
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
We know that,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
Integrating both sides,
Change of
Entropy of
different
processes
5 kg of water at 0 0C is exposed to reservoir at 98
C. Calculate the change of entropy of water,
0
reservoir and universe. Assume that specific heat
of water is 4.187 kJ/kg K.
Numerical 4
Given data:
mw = 5 kg, T1 = 0 0C = 273 K, T2 = 98 0C = 98 + 273 =
371 K
Cpw = 4.187 kJ/kg K, (∆S)water = ?, (∆S)reservoir = ?, (∆S)universe
=?
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Change of entropy of reservoir
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Change of entropy of universe
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A 50 kg block of iron casting at 500 K is thrown
into a large lake which is at temperature of 285 K.
After the iron block reaches thermal equilibrium
with the lake, determine
(i) Entropy change of iron block
(ii) Entropy change of lake water
Numerical 5 (iii)Total entropy change during this process
Assume average specific heat of iron block as 0.45
kJ/kg K
Given data:
m = 50 kg, T1 = 500 K, T0 = 285 K
(∆S)iron = ?, (∆S)lake = ?, (∆S)universe = ?
Change of entropy of iron block
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Change of entropy of lake
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Change of entropy of universe
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2 kg of water at 94 0
C are mixed with 3 kg of
water at 10 0C in an isolated system. Calculate the
change of entropy due to mixing process.
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Given data:
m1 = 2 kg, T1 = 94 0C = 94 + 273 = 367 K,
m2 = 3 kg, T2 = 10 0C = 10 + 273 = 283 K
Let Tf is final temperature of the mixture of both water
Numerical 6 Entropy change of 2 kg water cooling from 367 K to
316.6 K
Entropy change of 3 kg water heating from 283 K to
316.6 K
Numerical 6
Entropy change of universe
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A fluid undergoes a reversible adiabatic
compression from pressure 1 Mpa and volume 0.3
m3 to volume 0.05 m3, according to the law of pV1.3
= Constant. Determine,
(i) Work done, (ii) heat transfer, (iii) change in
internal energy,
Numerical 7 (iv) change of enthalpy and (v) change of entropy
Given data:
P1 = 1 x 105 N/m2, V1 = 0.3 m3 , V2 = 0.05 m3, pV1.3 =
Constant,
H – H = ?, S – S = ?, U – U = ?, W = ?, Q = ?
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For reversible adiabatic process,
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Work done for adiabatic process,
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• Heat transfer Q = 0 for adiabatic process.
Change of internal energy
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Change in enthalpy
Change of entropy
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A volume of 0.14 m3 of air at 1 bar and 90 C is
0
compressed to 0.014 m3 according to the law of pV1.3 =
C. Heat is then added at constant volume, the pressure
is 66 bar. Determine,
(i) Heat exchange with cylinder walls during
compression
(ii) Change of entropy during each portion of the process
Numerical 8 Assume, Ɣ = 1.4 and R = 286 J / kg K
Given data:
P1 = 1 x 105 N/m2, V1 = 0.14 m3 , T1 = 90 0C = 90 + 273 = 363
K,
pV1.3 = Constant, P3 = 66 x 105 N/m2, V2 = 0.014 m3, Q12 = ?, S2 –
S1 = ?, S3 – S2 = ?
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For process 1-2,
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And,
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For process 2-3 : constant volume heat addition,
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Also,
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• And,
• Heat exchange with cylinder walls during compression
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• Change of entropy of process 1-2:
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• Change of entropy of process 2-3:
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Air at 20 0C and 1.05 bar occupies 0.025 m3. The
air is heated at constant volume until the
pressure is 4.5 bar, and then cooled at constant
pressure back to original temperature. Calculate,
(i) The net heat flow from the air
Numerical 9 (ii) The net entropy change
Given data:
P1 = 1.05 x 105 N/m2, V1 = 0.025 m3 , T1 = 20 0C = 20 +
273 = 293 K,
V2 = V1, p2 = 4.5 bar, p2 = p3, T3 = T1 = 293 K
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Also,
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For process 1-2 : constant volume heat addition,
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• Net heat flow from air
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• Net change of entropy
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