Operation Rivers and the Defacement

of Riverine Landscape within the Last

Hundred Years
Sanat Kr. Guchhait
Professor
Department of Geography
The University of Burdwan

Date : 17.02.23
 Introduction

By the name of development what we have

achieved and what happens to nature is purely
contradictory. It has been reflected through
thousands of publication for which we are
designing our sustainable development for the last
30 years or so. This contradictory outcome has
been echoed in two monumental books-Silent
Spring(Carson,1962) and Silenced Rivers
(McCully, 1996).
If we carefully look at the paradigm of development of 20 th
century, it is basically for the development of economy and
society at the cost of development. This crazy and greedy
attempt of development enslaved the nature. The rivers and
river basins are thus lost their harmony by the name of
development of their society. Rivers and river basins have lost
their ecological tenet of unity, integrity, interdependence, and
reciprocity. This is a conscious attempt of science and politics
of rivers and river basins. Now the rivers and river basins are
facing the ill health and we are crazy about health estimation.
FROM OBSERVATION TO PERCEPTION

A sketch by Toulouse Lautrec

Aldo Leopold- A Sand County Almanac

 “The two great cultural advances of the past

century were the DARWININ theory and the
development of Geology…. Just as important,
however, as the origin of plants, animals, and soil
is the question of how they operate as a
community. That task has fallen to the new
science of ecology. Which is daily uncovering a
web of interdependencies, so intricate as to amaze
–were be here-even Darwin himself, who, of all
men, should have least cost to tremble before
veil.”
Nature Proposes, Man
Disposes
FROM CREATION OF THE EARTH
TO TILL DATE
Moses view (1450BC)
In the beginning God created the havens and the earth.

The earth was a formless void, there was darkness over

the deep, and God’s spirit hovered on water.

God said, “Let there be light” and there was light.

God saw that the light was good and God divided the
light from darkness.

God called the light ‘Day ’and darkness the ‘night’.

Evening came and the morning came- the first day.
God said, “Let there be a vault to divide the waters into two, above
the vault and under the vault. God called the vault ‘Haven’. Evening
came and the morning came- the second day.

God said ‘Let the waters under the haven come together into a mass
and let dry land appear’. God called the dry land ‘earth’ and the mass
of water ‘seas.’ And God saw that it was good.

God said, ‘Let the earth produce vegetation: seed bearing plants,
and fruit trees with their seeds inside, on the earth. God saw it was
good. Evening and morning came: the third day.
God said, ‘Let there be light in the vault of the haven to divide day
and night and let them indicate festivals, day and years. Let them be
light in the vault of the haven to shine on shine earth.’

God made the two great light, the greater govern the day, the smaller
lights to govern the night. Evening and morning came: the fourth
day.

God said, ‘Let the waters teem with living creatures, let the birds fly
above the earth. God blessed them, saying, ‘Be fruitful and multiply.’
Evening and morning came: the fifth day.
God said, ‘Let the earth produce every kind of living creatures: cattle,
reptiles and every wild beast. And it was. God saw it was good.

God said, ‘Let us make man in our own image, in the likeness of
ourselves. And let them the masters of the fish of the seas, the birds
of the haven, the cattle, all the wild beast that crawl upon the earth.’

God blessed them, saying to them, ‘Be fruitful, multiply, fill the earth
and conquer it. Be masters of all living creatures. And so it was. God
saw all he made, and indeed it was very good. Evening and
morning came: the sixth day.
Evolution of Species and Mediating
Environment
HUMAN COGNITION AND BEHAVIOUR

Tuan (1974) characterizes three cerebral levels of

cognizing environment of man :-
a) The Reptilian brain which drive man to pursue vital
instinctive urges, including security, shelter, food,
territory and the formation of social hierarchies.
b) The Limbic brain which feeds all drives of emotion,
from aggression and selfishness to compassion and
altruism.
c) The Symbolic brain which characterizes and codifies
the seemingly confusing mass of environmental
information into meaning pattern that help to
rationalize his subsequent behaviour.
 THE JUDAEO – CHRISTIAN TENETS

“The Judaeo – Christian ethics was the cause of western man’s

alienation from nature. Christianity is the most anthropocentric
religion the world has seen…. It has not only established a dualism
of man and nature but has also insisted that it is the God’s will that
man exploit nature for his proper ends” (White, 1967).
“And God said, let us make man in our image, after our likeness :
and let him have domination over the fish of the sea and over the
fowl of the air and over the cattle and other the earth….. So God
created man in his own image …. And God blessed them and God
said unto them, Be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth… and
have domination over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air
and over every living thing that move upon the earth.” (Genesis,
Chapter – 1 verses 26-28). Moses view (1450BC)
 WHAT DOES A RIVER SPEAK?
The most important of all the geomorphic processes over the surface of the earth
is the running water. In the context, the river plays the most important role, not
only in shaping the earth’s surface but also in the shaping of man’s life on earth

(Morisawa, 2017). River as the sinuous natural flow of water as a fluvial process
including hydraulics with its concomitant erosion, transportation, deposition, and
development of landforms is the most lucrative study in geomorphology under the
backdrop of channel development, valley configuration, basin dynamics, riparian
regime and so on.
Apart from this channelized flow, large rivers and their basins are viewed as the
riverine landscape and also riverine ecology where the river, the river basin, and its
adjacent terrestrial surface are conceptualized into an integrated complex of soil,
water, biota, productive cropland, and even the settlement, but due to abuse and
overuse of rivers within the last two hundred years or so, rivers and streams are
among the most endangered ecosystems throughout the world ( Tare, 2013; Thomas
[Link]., 2005). River corridors are fragmented and drastically altered (Fausch 2002;
Ward [Link]., 2002), for which not only the riverine hazards have been intensified the
future generations will face the tragedy.
Taming of Rivers
and River Basins
 Early History of Controlling Rivers

• The Irrigation practices in Egypt was

observed about 5000 years BC
• Similar techniques was observed in
Mesopotamia about 3000-5000 BC
• The FIRST major irrigation project was built
about 3100 BC during Menes, the founder
Egyptian Dynasty
• The oldest dam Sadd-Al-Kafara was built
during 2686-2500Bc
• 20 km diversion of canal for controlling flood
was made during 2100bc
• The Importance of watershed was recognised
by Benjamin Franklin during 1970
Conceptual Framework
Hotton’s Stream Laws(1945) still valid
for Topo-geometry of Drainage Basin. It
was further extended to Morphometric
analysis and by Schumn(1956),
Strahler(1957) & so on hydro-dynamics
is unfolded by Wolman(1955),
Barbarossa(1952), Matths(1956) etc.
Genealogy of the Rivers and River Basins
HYDROLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF
A RIVER

 HYDROLIC FLOW
 CHANNEL DEVELOPMENT AND
MODIFICATION
 DICHARGE AND LOAD
 ERISION, TRANAPORTATION AND
DEPOSITION
 FLOOD AND FLOOD PLAINS
ECOLOGICAL TENET OF RIVERS AND RIVERS BASINS

River Basin as an Organic Entity

Association
Harmony
Interdependence
Reciprocity
Integrity
Unity
Uniqueness
GEOMETRY
 Development of Hydrology of Rivers
 Sent- Vinant equation 1844) used to study the flood in
open channel flow

 Geuckler Equation (1867) average velocity of water flow

 Manning Equation (1890) Average velocity of water in

open channel

 Foster(1924) Used Pearson type III distribution to

describe probability distribution of flood peaks

 V. CHOW (1959) Rainfall-runoff of a basin

 Dynamic Routing: Stroker (1953) Proesch (1954)

 Beston (1964) and Regan (1968) Water shed controlling

flow of the stream

 Dynamic Wave Operation Model (DWOPER by IBM 360/195

computer : Thread 1973-76
 Hewlett (1982) Saturation over land flow during storm
Robert E Horton (1875-1945)
 HydrologicEngineer and Hydrologist
 Graduated in 1898

 1898-1806-U S Geological Survey

 1806-1911 New York State Barge Canal
 1911-25 Department of Public Works
 1924-32 NY Board of Water Supply ( Stream Gaging and base
flow of NY Streams)
 His main work: Max. Runoff and Flood Generation
 In 1945, before his death a 95-pages landmark paper
appeared, summarized into four laws:
 Stream Number, stream Length, Limiting Infiltration Capacity,
Runoff-Detention-Storage Relation
 Horton, the Legendary Figure in Hydrology
R.E. Horton and Rafter (1896) Rainfall-runoff in the upper Hudson river

R.E. Horton and Rafter (1899) : Discharge coefficient of dams at different

cross sections on the hydraulic laboratory at Cornell University

R.E. Horton 1903-05: Hydrographer at New York- Groundwater runoff

R.E. Horton 1906: Consultant hydraulic engineer

1918; Private Hydrological Laboratory

1924: Infiltration Capacity

1933: Role of infiltration in the hydrological cycle ( Jones called this paper
1s scientific paper on storm runoff

1933: Overland flow (In 1932 Shearman introduced unit hydrograph)

1945: Stream Ordering and Stream Laws

 Dissection of Rivers and River Basins
From the 20th Century onward, there was a steady but continuous attempt to
understand the dynamics of rivers and river basins through scientific principles, logical
arguments, and process-related study. The essence of this is only to understand the

rivers and river basins but to trace out how the rivers and river basins are tamed and
administered for resource development. Such an attempt I would like to call the
dissection of rivers and river basins and analyzed into four sections:

1)Graphical Dissection of Rivers and River Basins

2)Dissection of Rivers and River Basins through Field Operation

3)Dissection of Watershed

4)Intensive Dissection through Integrated Watershed Management

5)Illness and Health Estimation

COSMETIC SURGERY OF THE RIVERS
and river basins

1) Multipurpose River Valley Project and

Construction of Dams
2) Watershed Management (From 1960s)
3) Sub-watershed Management (1970s)
4) Integrated Watershed Management
(1980s)
5) River Health Assessment (Middle of
1990s)
Graphical DISSECTION
 Horton Stream laws

 Horton’s Stream laws are based on

geometric principle:
 i) N k =R b K-k

ii) Lk =L1K-1

i) A k =A1K-1
DISSECTION THROUGH FIELD OPERATION (TVA,1933)

The triumph over nature was established with the

utterance of Roosevelt, the then president of the USA, “I
came, I saw and I was conquered (Mc Culley, 1998).”
Human assault on rivers and river basins has become the
common parlance with the massive construction of dams
and multipurpose valley projects with a stupendous growth
of such activities mainly organized by six countries- USA,
USSR, China, Turkey, Switzerland, and India. China alone
has constructed more than 20,000 big and medium size
dams from 1980 to2000. Graphical dissection thus got real
success through field operations (70,000 dams after IR-
Chen et al, 2020).
 DISSECTION THROUGH FIELD OPERATION

Field-based operation of the rivers and their basins was

initiated in the 1930s with the idea of a multipurpose river
valley project. The construction of large dams and the
draining out of the water from the channel entered into the
scenario with the seminal application by the TVA. Human
beings started to tame and train not only the rivers but also
the river basins with the inauguration ceremony of the
Hoover dam on 30th September 1935.
DAMS :THE DEMONS
 DISSECTION OF WATERSHED

The idea of watershed development was taken in the 1970s keeping the ecological tenet
of river basins. Considering the negative impacts of big dams and multiple river valley
projects, ecologists and agriculturists propounded the resource development of
drainage basin dividing it into the slope, water, based zone sand proper ecological
planning. Later on, in the 1980s Micro-watershed management was adopted
keeping the ecology and economy as if the marginal people benefited. The purpose was
good but in most cases profit maximization outlook betrayed the ecological stability
and ultimate sub-water shed and small watershed at the higher slope and relief of the
drainage basins which were out of the clutch of the multipurpose come under extensive
exploitation. Thus ecologically rich small watershed which was small but beautiful lost
its beauty and ecological harmony.
 INTENSIVE DISSECTION THROUGH INTEGRATED
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

The stupendous growth of remote sensing technology and overwhelming acceptance of computer
simulation models transformed the knowledge and understanding of the extensive use and abuse
of drainage basins, watersheds, and river channels with the highest precession level through
theoretical knowledge, virtual modelling, and practical application mainly from the middle of the
1990s in developed countries and from the new millennium in developing countries. Therefore,
guarantee economic benefit and ecological retreat were attenuated through such combined
virtual –actual planning leading to extreme degradation of rivers and drainage basins. Now we
have realized that the health (ecological health) of rivers (Tanja,2012; Lou [Link]., 2004) and their
basins are lost and now the planners are shouting for river and basin health estimation for the
last one decade. Now the ecology is lost and also the economy is lost to a great extent.
RIVER HEALTH ESTIMATION
The idea came into the domain of intensive
research from 1995 (Wright, Thomas) 1997 (Mayer)
etc.

River Health Assessment is studied mainly from

four aspect:

1)Hydrology- Flow related parameters

2)Geomorphology- Bank, bed, channel and
floodplain related parameters
3)Water Quality-Physical, Chemical and Biological
parameters
4)Biotic Profile- Producer, Consumers and
Decomposers
Assessment of the Health of Rivers and River Basins
Hydrological/ Hydraulics indices:
Flow Stress Ranking, Flow Variation Degree (FD),

Ecological Flow (EF), Hydrology Condition Index

Fluvial Geomorphology indices:
Index of Stream Geomorphology, Streambank Stability
Index,
Water Quality indices:
Environmental Performance Index, Horton's WQI
Biological indices:
Biological Diatom Index, Specific Pollution Sensitivity
Index, Benthic Index, Simpson’s Index
RIVER AS WASTE SINK
 POLLUTION OF RIVERS

Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation have compounded the problem.

According to the report
published by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in March 2021,
sewage generation from
urban areas in the country are estimated at 72,368
million litres
per day (MLD), against which sewage treatment capacity of 31,841
MLD was available.
 POLLUTED RIVER STRETCHES (BOD>30mg/l and BOD exceeding 6mg/l on
all occasions )
State Polluted Stretch Source/Town Monitoring Location
River BOD (mg/l)
Andhra Pradesh D/s Medak Medak Bachugudem, Medak
Nakkavagu 50

Assam D/s of Nagaon Nagaon- Sewage Elangabeel System Pond

Kalong (Elangabeel System) 50

Chandigarh Sukhna Choe Chandigarh Sukhna Choe

Sukhna Choe 50

Delhi Wazirabad to Okhla Industrial & Domestic Nizamuddin

Yamuna Waste from Delhi 55
D/S Of Okhla A/C
Shahdara Drain 70

Gujarat Ahmedabad to D/S of Discharge from Meshwa At Vill. Miroli Taluka

Sabarmati Vautha & Ahemdabad Dascroi, Ahmedabad 103
Kala Amb to Narayan Industrial & Domestic Kala Amb D/S
Markanda Garh waste 590
from Kala Amb

D/s of Yamuna Nagar Yamuna Nagar Industrial 100 metre D/s after
Western & Domestic wastewater receiving Industrial & 247
Yamuna Canal Haryana
Sewage effluent

At Damla d/s of Yamuna

188
 Tamil Nadu Along Chennai Chennai- Industrial & Annanagar,
Coovum Municipal wastewater Arumbakkam, 105
Amanjikarai,
Poonamalle, College
Road, Central Jail,
Napier Bridge

Muzaffar Nagar to Sewage & Industrial Kalinadi At D/S Of

Western Kali Confluence with Hindon effluents from Muzaffar Muzaffar Nagar 364
nagar & Mansoorpur
Uttar Pradesh
Kannauj Industrial and At Kannauj (Before
Kali Nadi Conf.) 120
Municipal sewage
Eastern
from
Meerut,Modinaga U/S Of Gulaothi Town
r, Bulandsahar, In Bulandsahar, 183
Hapur, Gulaothi
and Kannauj

Rajasthan Along Pali Industrial & Domestic 1.D/S Pali

Bandi waste from Pali 30-141

Uttarakhand D/S of Kashipur Sewage & Industrial Dhela D/S of Kashipur

Dhela & waste from Kashipur 187
Kichha
 RIVER HEALTH ASSESSMENT

Hydrological/ Hydraulics indices:

Flow Stress Ranking, Flow Variation Degree (FD),
Ecological Flow (EF), Hydrology Condition Index
Fluvial Geomorphology indices:
Index of Stream Geomorphology, Streambank Stability
Index,
Water Quality indices:
Environmental Performance Index, Horton's WQI
Biological indices:
Biological Diatom Index, Specific Pollution Sensitivity
Index, Benthic Index, Simpson’s Index
Nature Proposes, Man
Disposes and thus we are in
a ‘Risk Society’ (Ulrich
Beck, 1992) where the rivers
and river basins have lost its
harmony, integrity, unity
and uniqueness.
THANK YOU