Application area of the compressors

• Air separation
• Oil&Gas
• Refinery process
• Ethylene / Propylene
• Ammonia
• Urea
• Nitric acid
• Methanol
• PTA( Pure Terephtalic Acid)
• Metal making
• Plant air
• Sulphur recovery
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 Air Separation
Products
So called “technical or industrial gases” such as
- nitrogen
- oxygen
- noble gases

Processes
The air separation process follows the following basic steps
- air compression
- air cleaning
- low temperature making and air chilling
- rectification

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 Compressor for air separation plants

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 Oil & Gas
Products
Liquid and gaseous fuels

The processes
General
There is a variety of processes applied in oil & gas fields. These have little
in common with chemical processes but perform tasks such as:
- production
- separation
- transport
- storage
- liquefaction

Here we deal with the most important processes only which are
- recompression (gas-oil-separation)
- gas lift (enhanced oil recovery)
- reinjection (enhanced oil recovery)
- LPG (liquefaction)
- LNG (liquefaction)
- pipelines
- natural gas storage
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 Recompression
There are oil- and gasfields. Oilfields always produce a mixture of oil and
gas. Gasfields produce 95-98 % gs with some liquids.
The gas contained in crude oil is called “associated gas” and has to be
separated from the liquid. The gas from gasfields is called “natural gas”.
Associated gas has a higher average mol-weight than natural gas.
A characteristic feature of both oil- and gasfields is that pressure levels in
the reservoirs decrease during exploitation. For the compressors in service
this means that their suction pressures decrease over their lifetime. To
cope with the changes in operating conditions compressor internals have
to be changed several times over is lifetime.
The pressureized oil-gas-mixture is depressurized in a GOSP (=gas oil
separation plant) Normally, there are 2 depressurizing steps. At the high
pressure end the low mol-weight gases separate, at the low pressure end
the higher mol-weight gases do.
The first compressor process stage is connected to the low pressure end.
It has the lowest weight flow and the highest mol-weight. With higher
process stages, the weight flows add up, the average mol-weight becomes
lighter.
This method is called “recompression”. The final stage of a recompression
compressor may be designed for different duties, such as
- processing (eg. LPG)
- transport + processing
- gas lift
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 Reinjection and gas lift

Both processes are methods for enhanced oil recovery.

With reinjection, a high pressure is imposed on the liquids inside the well.
Light associated gas is used for reinjection. Pressures required are 150-
600 bar. Reinjection compressors are normally separate units.

With gas lift, gas is injected into the oil riser pipe at several levels. The oil-
gas mixture lower specific weight than the pure liquid, resulting in higher
flow velocities.

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 LPG + LNG
LPG = `Liquefied petroleum gas consists of lighter paraffin like propane,
butane and higher. These are liquefied in a propane refrigeration loop at
temperatures of  -50 °C

The feedgas is supplied directly from the recompression train or through an

additional feedgas compressor. With pressures up to 3 bar, LPG can easily
be stored or even be sold in bottles (e.g. camping gas).

LNG = Liquefied natural gas (99 % methane)

To liquefy methane under atmospheric pressure, temperatures lower than -

160 °C are required. The refrigeration loop of a propane pre-cooling loop
and a MCR main loop.

MCR (multi component refrigerant) is a mixture of ethane, methane and

nitrogen, forming a so-called “auto cascade”.

Both MCR and Propane compressors are large size compressors,

belonging to the flagships of the compressor industry
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 Pipelines

With pipelines, natural gas can be transported over long continental

distances. There are also subsea pipelines for moderate water depths, as
e.g. through the Mediterranean.

There are standard pipeline diameters: 20, 24, 28, 30, 36, 42, 56 inches.
Pipeline compressor designs have to correspond with these diameters.

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 Gas storage

Natural gas consumption varies widely between summer and winter

season while supply contracts provide for a steady flow of gas from
producers. In order to compensate for this difference in supply and
consumption patterns underground natural gas storage is applied. There
are two of geological formations feasible for storage:
- caverns
- porous limestone

Compressors for underground storage usually have 2 operating modes:

- injection pipeline pressure to storage pressure

- extraction storage pressure to pipeline pressure
(if storage pressure is below pipeline pressure)

A common solution for these duties is to have a 2-section compressor, with

the 2 sections working in series for injection and in parallel for extraction.

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 Compressors for oil & gas applications

Name Recompression Reinjection Feedgas Refrigeration Gas storage

Process Gas-crude oil Enhanced oil LPG LPG Gas storage

separation recovery
Function Recompression High pressure Gas to required Refrigeration Injection
of associated gas compression process loop (propane) Extraction
pressure
Vol. Flows 5,000...30,000 2,000...10,000 5,000...10,000 25,000...150,000 4,000...10,000
3
(m /h)
Pressures 2-4...60-120 60-80...150...600 2-10...20-30 atm.17-22 40...70...150-
(bar) 250
Designs 06...10MH+MV 05...06MV...A 06...10MV...A 10...20MH...A 06...08MV...B
with sideloads single or double
casing
Driver GT or EM GT or EM GT GT, ST, EM GT, EM

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 Compressors for oil & gas applications

Name MCR Propane End Flashgas Boil off Pipelines

Process LNG LNG LNG LNG Pipelines

nd st
Function 2 stage 1 stage End flashgas to Boil off gas Gas transport
refrigeration refrigeration further use reliquification or
fuel gas supply
Vol. Flows 100,000...300,000 80,000-150,000 15,000...60,000 6,000...30,000 5,000...30,000
(m3/h)
Pressures atm. ...30-50 atm. ...12-25 atm. ...12-25 atm.6-25 30...60
(bar) -30...-50 -30...-50 -30...-50 -140...-160
Designs LP Ax or 17-20 MV 17...20MH...A 08...14MH...A 06...12MH...A ...B 12/12...B
HP17...20MV with sidesloads sometimes sometimes LP+HP 36/30
LP+HP PV 20/20...PV
36/36
Driver GT GT EM EM GT or EM

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 Refinery Processes
Products and their purpose
- various types of liquid fuels for combustion engines (gasoline, diesel,
kerosine)
- feedstock for petrochemical processes, such as naphta or gasoil for
ethylene plants.

The processes
Light hydrocarbons shall be recovered from crude oil
1. The first processing step is atmospheric distillation.
Atmospheric distillation takes place in columns at 350°C and atmospheric
pressure. So-called “boiling fractions” from which are deposited inside the
approx.. 30 m high columns according to their specific weight:

Boiling fraction Boiling range °C Position inside column

C4, LPG 40-70 top
Naphta 70-180
Kerosine 180-230
Diesel + Heating oil 230-280 middle
Gasoil 280-350
Residual crude oil 350-500 bottom
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2. The second step is vacuum distillation, which takes place at 500°C.
With vacuum distillation, more gasoil is recovered. With distillation only 17 %
of the crude oil can be recovered as naphta (raw gasoline).

3. To recover even more light hydrocarbons “Cracking” is required as the

third step.
Long molecules are cracked into shorter ones. The feedstock for cracking are
the heavier fractions below Diesel, such as gas oil. There are several methods
of cracking, which can be subdivided into 3 main groups:
1. Catalytic cracking
- FCC=Fluid Catalytic Cracking
The feedstock normally is gasoil
- RCC=Residual Crude Conversion
The feedstock is residual crude

2. Hydrocracking
Very long molecules can be cracked with H2 at pressures up to 200 bars.

3. Thermal cracking, such as

- Delayed coking, Flexicoking
- Visbreaking
The feedstock is residual crude and even fractions below (such as taroil)
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 Naphta and diesel treatment
1. Catalytic reforming of naphta
The objectives are:
- octane enhancement
- production of aromats (benzene, toluole, xylole).
The reaction takes place over a platinum catalyst, why this process
is also called platinum reforming or a platforming.
2. Hydrotreating
Hydrotreating is used for both naphta and diesel to remove sulphur-
and organic components.
3. Alkylation
An “alkyl” is a paraffin minus one H-atom (CH4  CH3 methyl). This
alkyl is then combined with another paraffin, normally pentane.
Methylpentane (C5H12  C5H11CH3) ís an important octane enhancer.

Only the Stracto and the Kellogg process need a refrigeration

compressor. Alkylation normally is a downstream process of FCC-units.

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 Individual refining subprocesses
There are two subgroups of processes needing different types of
compressors:
1. Hydrogen enrichment processes
– Platforming
– Hydrotreating
– Hydrocracking
A hydrogen rich gas has to be recycled. The hydrogen consumed by
the product is replaced by fresh hydrogen feed.
Compressors are multi-stage barrel designs. API 617 requires barrel
type compressor if the partial pressure of hydrogen exceeds 13.8
barg. Most compressor manufacturers use barrel type compressors
at molecular weights below 12 to 15 independly from pressure.
2. Cracking processes
– FCC
– RCC
– Visbreaking
– Coking
The crack gas (also rawgas or wetgas) has to be compressed for
further processing. Molecular weights are around 30, and
compressors normally are horizontally split.

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 Compressors for refinery processes

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 Dehydrogenation and MTBE
Products and their purpose
- production of propylene from propane
- production of iso-butylene from i-butan.
Iso-butylene is the base material for MTBE performing the following
functions as a fuel additive:
- anti knocking
- reduction of volatile organic emissions
- oxygenate (cleaner burning fuel, less CO emissions, reduction of ground
level ozone, smog formation)
The process
Propylene from propane
C3H8 C3H6 + H2
Isobutylene from i-butane:
C4H10 C4H8 + H2
The removal of H2 is called “dehydrogenation”.
General
MTBE originates form a reaction between iso-butylane and mehanol. No
compressors are required for this phase process.
Compressors are only required for the dehydrogenation process, which is
an integral part of grassroot MTBE-units. The dehydrogenation-process is
exothermal. Main compressor drivers are steam turbines, in particular for
the charge gas compressors.
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 Compressors for dehydrogenation plants

Name Charge Gas Air Refrigerant

Process Catofin Oleflex Catofin Catofin
Phillips Star
Yarsintez
Function Charge gas Charge gas Catalyst Regeneration Product separation
Compression Compression
Vol. Flows 200,000 ... 400,000 100,000 ... 200,000 100,000 ... 250,000 5,000 - 15,000
(m³/h)
Pressures 0.2 - 0.7 ... 12 - 16 atm. ... 12 - 16 atm. ... 2 atm. - 15 - 20
bar
Designs LP: 14 ... 20 MH ... B + AX x MH ... B AX or SEE 06 ...10 MH ... A
MP: 14 ... 20 MH ... B + MH ... A + MH ... B
HP: MH ... A or B
Driver ST ST ST EM

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 Ethylene / Propylene Plants
Products and their purpose
Ethylene
Under atmospheric pressure, ethylene can be liquefied at a temperature of
-105 °C.
Propylene
Under atmospheric pressure, propylene can be liquefied at a temperature of -50 °C.
Both ethylene and propylene are the base material for plastics, such as
- Polyethylene
- Polypropylene
- PVC
Coproducts, such as butadiene and butylenes which are used in the petrochemical
industry.
The process
The feedstock is cracked with steam in a cracking furnace, producing a gas mixture that is
called ‘rawgas’ or ‘crackgas’. The feedstocks normally used are
- ethane/propane (main feedstock in the U.S.)
- naphta (crude gasoline, main feedstock in Europe)
The gas then is compressed to  30 ... 35 bar in order to make it through all process steps.
The main process steps are:
- caustic washing after the 3rd process stage to remove H2S and other
contaminations
- further compression in the 4th and 5th process stage
- drying
- cryogenic separation of the gas mixture. The refrigerants used are propylene
(cooling to -50 °C) and ethylene (cooling to -105 °C).
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Wherever refrigeration loops are required in the chemical industry, it is tried to take the
refrigerant from the process itself for easy replacement of leakages (e.g. ammonia in the
ammonia process).
- further purification of the liquids, such as
. de-methanizing and de-ethanizing for both the ethylene and the propylene
stream
. acetylene conversion for ethylene
. de-propanizing and MAPD conversion for propylene
(MAPD = methylacetylene and propadiene)
. de-progranizing and de-butanizing for butadiene.

General

The ethylene process is highly exothermal. All compressor drivers are steam turbines.
A speciality of crack gas compression is the potential forming of polymers inside the
compressor, resulting in tar-like layers at the stationary parts of the flow channels and badly
affecting performance.

Polymerization is mainly caused by butadienes. To limit polymerization, a compression

temperature of 100 °C must not be exceeded.

Further improvements can be achieved by water or wash oil injection.

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 Compressors for ethylene/propylene plants

Name Cracked Gas Propylene (Propane) Ethylene

Process
st nd
Function Cracked gas Refrigeration loop 1 stage Refrigeration loop 2 stage
Compression to process pressure -50 °C ... -30 °C -105 °C ... -70 °C
Vol. Flows 150,000 ... 300,000 40,000 ... 200,000 10,000 ... 35,000
(m³/h)
Pressures atm. ... 30 - 40 atm. ... 14 - 20 atm. ... 18 - 25
(bar)
Designs LP: MH ... B, double inlet 14 ... 20 MH ... A up to 12 MH ... A
MP: MH ... B with side loads with side loads
HP: MH ... B single casing single casing or LP + HP
Driver ST ST ST

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 Ethylene and Propylene Derivatives
(Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Ethylene Oxide)
Products and their purpose
Polyethylene and polypropylene are plastics used for many products. They are produced as
granulates.
Ethylene oxide is an important base material in the petrochemical industry, e.g. for glycol
production. Under atmospheric conditions below 11 °C its a liquid.
The process
Polyethylene
There is high density polyethylene (HDPE) and low density polyethylen (LDPE).
HDPE traditionally produced at pressures between 20 - 30 bar, LDPE at very high
pressures between 1,000 - 3,500 bar depending on the process and required product
properties.
The UCC-Unipol process is able to produce linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) at the
traditional pressure levels of HDPE.
The UCC-Unipol process converts gaseous ethylene/propylene over a fluidized catalyst at
pressure above 20 bars. The gas is circulated by a single stage compressor. The covered
gas is replaced by a fresh gas feed. The circulating gas is contaminated with catalysts dust.
Furthermore, particles of the final product may enter the compressor. Therefore dead
spaces should be avoided inside the compressor.
Further LLDPE gas phase processes have been developed by Phillips, Borealis and
Montell.

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Polypropylene: see Polyethylene

Ethylene oxide
A feed mixture of ethylene, oxygen and inerts reacts over a fixed bed reactor.

C2H4 + 1/2 O  C2H4O

C2H4 + 3 O2  2 CO2 + 2 H2O

General
The polyethylene and the polypropylene process must not be contaminated with normal lube
oil. If liquid seals are employed, white oil has to be used, requiring separate oil systems for
lube and for seal oil.

The best option to avoid any contamination is to use dry gas seals in combination with
magnetic bearings (dry-dry option).

Ethylene oxide must not come into contact with any kind of oil. With liquid seals,
demineralized water has to be used. Again, the best solution is dry gas seals.

Usually polyethylene and polypropylene plants are down stream downstream plants of
ethylene crackers. The same applies to ethylene oxide plants, with the oxygen being supplied
either by pipeline or on-site air separation.

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 Compressors for polyethylene/polypropylene
and ethylene oxide plants

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 Ammonia
Purpose of the product
Ammonia (NH3) is a colourless gas lighter than air (M = 17) under atmospheric conditions.
For industrial handling it is normally liquified at -30 °C.
Ammonia is the base material for nitrogen fertilizers, such as:
- ammonium sulphate (NH4)2 SO4
- ammonium chloride NH4 CL
- urea (NH2)2 CO
Furthermore, Ammonia is the base material for nitric acid (HNO3)
The process
The ammonia process consists of 2 steps.

Synthesis gas preparation

Here we have different processes.
1. Steam reforming (~85 % market share)
CH4 + H2O  CO + 3 H2 - 200 KJ
CO + H2O  CO2 + H2
The necessary N2 is provided from the atmosphere by the air compressor.

2. Partial oxydation (~5 % market share)

CH4 + 1/2 O2  CO + 2 H2 + 35 KJ
(The process works with any hydrocarbon but is preferable used for heavy ones).
Air separation unit (ASU) required. The required nitrogen is supplied by an ASU and
further compressed to the required process pressure.
Customer Training Power Generation (PG I 135) 34
21.02.25 11:26
1. Coal gasification (~5 % market share)

2 C + O2  2 CO
CO + H2O  CO2 + H2

ASU required. Necessary N2 supplied from the ASU and compressed to the required
process pressure.

Ammonia synthesis

N2 + 3 H2 = 2 NH3 + 92 KJ

The reaction takes place over a catalyst.

The ammonia synthesis is identical for all processes.

General

The ammonia process is highly exothermal. All compressor drivers are normally steam
turbines, including the drivers for the ASU. Power evaluation is low.

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 Compressors for ammonia plants
Name Feedgas Reformer Air Syngas Ammonia Air O2 N2
Process Steam Steam reforming Steam reforming Steam reforming ASU ASU ASU
reforming
Partial oxydation Partial oxydation
Coal gasification Coal gasification
Function Natgas N2 supply Ammonia Ammonia Feed air for Oxygen supply to N2 supply
boosting to to the synthesis synthesis liquefaction air separation gasifier to the synthesis
required
pressure
Vol. Flows < 3,000 20,000 ... 80,000 3,000 ... 15,000 5,000 ... 30,000 20,000 ... 10,000 ... 40,000 10,000 ... 60,000
(m³/h) 100,000
Pressures 20 ... 35 atm. 40 8-80 ... 180-220 1-3 ... 17-22 1 ... 8 ... 15 6-8 ... 60-80 5 ... 20-90
(bar)
Designs SEZ MH ... B+MH ... B MV + MV ... B MH AR MH MH
MH + MH
MV VK (6 stage) (integral circulator) MH + MH RR
MV ... B (P. Oxy.) with side loads
Driver EM ST (EM) ST ST ST ST ST

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 Urea

Purpose of the product

Urea (NH2)2 CO, is an important fertilizer.

The process

Ammonia reacts with CO2:

2 NH3 + CO2  (NH2)2 CO + H2O + heat

General

The urea process is exothermal, generating steam. Drivers usually are steam
turbines. As for nitric acid plants, urea plants are downstream units of ammonia
plants.

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 Compressors for the urea process

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 Nitric Acid
Purpose of the product
Nitric acid, HNO3 is the base material for fertilizers and explosives.

The process
Burning of NH3 over a catalyst.
4 NH3 + 5 O2 = 4 NO + 6 H2O + heat
Oxidation of NO by oxidation air:
2 NO + O2 = 2 NO2 + heat
Absorption of NO2
This happens in so called absorption towers:
4 NO2 + O2 + 2 H2O = 4 HNO3 + heat

General
The nitric aid process is highly exothermal. Power evaluation is low.
In the reactor, only the oxygen of the oxidation air is needed. The hot and pressurized
(but also contaminated) nitrogen can be utilized for power recovered by means of an
offgas expander. Additional drivers are steam turbines.
Since nitric acid plants need NH3 feed they are downstream units of ammonia plants.
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 Compressors for nitric acid plants

Name Air Nitrous Gas Expander Air Expander

Process Dual pressure Dual pressure Dual pressure Elevated pressure Elevated pressure
Function Oxidation air Compression prior to Energy recovery Oxidation air Energy recovery
absorption
Vol. Flows 100,000 - 250,000 7,000 - 40,000 70,000 - 180,000 30,000 - 120,000 20,000 - 100,000
(m³/h)
Pressure atm. ... 2-5 2 - 4 ... 7 - 15 atm. 14 - 6 atm. 6 - 12 atm. 5 - 0
(bar)
Designs Axial Horizontally split Axial Centrifugal inline or VK Centrifugal or axial
Driver ST + EXP Part of train Part of train ST + EXP Part of train or
integrated in VK

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 Methanol
Purpose of the product

Methanol or methyl alcohol (CH3OH) is a liquid under atmospheric conditions.

Methanol is the base material for
- formaldehyde ( 45 % of the production)
- fuel additives ( 15 % of the production)
(like MTBE)
- various chemicals ( 40 % of the production)
such as
. acetic acid
. DMT

The process
Similar to the ammonia process it consists of 2 steps.

Synthesis gas preparation

All processes that are used to prepare ammonia synthesis gas can also be used to
prepare methanol synthesis gas, however no nitrogen is needed.
- Steam reforming
- Partial oxidation
- Coal gasification
Chemical reactions as described under ammonia!

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Methanol synthesis
CO + 2 H2  CH3 OH
CO2 + 3 H3  CH3 OH + H2O
CO2 + H2  CO+ H2O

The reaction takes place across a catalyst.

General

The process is exothermal. All drivers are normally steam turbines. After synthesis, the
methanol is mixed with water and organic chemicals. The methanol is separated in a
distillation section.

With natural gas as the feedstock, the synthesis gas is carbon-deficient. If available
carbon dioxide can be used to make up for this carbon deficiency. CO2 may be available
from an adjacent ammonia plant.

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 Compressors for methanol plants

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 PTA (Pure Terephtalic Acid)
Purpose of the product

PTA is a white granulate. It is mainly used for polyester yarn for clothing, but also in
tire cords. Furthermore it is used as a base material for audio and video cassette
tapes and computer disks and as a resin to mould plastic bottles (PET).

The process

Paraxylene is oxidized in solution in acetic acid. The overall reaction is as follows:

(CH3)2 + 3 O2  (COOH)2 + 2 H2O

The reaction takes place over a metal catalyst (cobalt, mangan).

General

The PTA process is exothermal. Power evaluation is low.

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 Compressor for the PTA process

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 Metal Making
Purpose
To make refined metal from raw metal or ore.
The process

Injection of air into blast furnaces to produce raw metal from ore.
Injection of air into converters for non-ferrous metals to burn impurities.

General
Normally drivers are electric motors and power evaluation is high.

Name Air Compressor Air Compressor

Process Blast furnace Converter service
Function Air supply Air supply
Vol. Flows 100,000 - 650,000 10,000 - 100,000
(m³/h)
Pressures atm. ... 3 - 6 atm. 1.6 - 2.2
(bar)
Designs X 100 ... Ax 600 SEZ 3 ... SEZ 80
Driver EM (ST) EM

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 Plant Air
Purpose
Working air for instruments, tools and actuators.
The process

General
A safe plant air supply is essential for refineries and petrochemical plants. Till today,
conservative operators (such as Shell) only use API 617 compressors in a redundant
arrangement (2 x 50 %), one EM, one ST driven.

Apart from these conservative operators the normal arrangement is to have 2 x 50

integrally geared with EM.
Flow range < 10,000 > 10,000 - 30,000 > 30,000
(Nm³/h)
Process Various applications Various applications Various applications
Function Air supply Air supply Air supply
Fol. Flows 1,000 - 10,000 10,000 ... 30,000 30,000 ... 100,000
(m³/h)
Pressures atm. ... 6-15 atm. ... 6-15 atm. 6-8
(bar)
Designs Small size integrally Small size integrally VK 40-4 ... VK 80-4
geared geared, CVK
Driver EM EM (ST) EM

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 Sulphur Recovery (Claus Plant)
Purpose
The recovery of sulphur from H2-S-rich off-gases in refineries, petrochemical and gas
processing plants.
The process

Oxidation of H2S with under-stoichiometric air, formation of SO2:

H2S + O2  SO2 + H2

Reaction of H2S + SO2 = 3 S + 2 H2O

The process is exothermal. Due to low power requirements drivers are electric motors
normally.

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 Compressors for sulphur recovery

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