Chapter 2

HEAT CONDUCTION
EQUATION
INTRODUCTION
• Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a
different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude. It is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus
signs.

2
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature
difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat
transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
 rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
 cylindrical T(r, , z, t)
 spherical T(r, , , t).

3
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change
with time at any point within
the medium
• Transient implies variation
with time or time
dependence
• In the special case of
variation with time but not
with position, the
temperature of the medium
changes uniformly with
time. Such heat transfer
systems are called lumped
systems.

4
Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
 one-dimensional
 two dimensional
 three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-
dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or
one-dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat
transfer rates in different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one
direction only and thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the
variation of temperature and thus heat transfer in other directions are
negligible or zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases,
varies mainly in two primary directions, and the variation of
temperature in the third direction (and thus heat transfer in that
direction) is negligible.

5
6
• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction
(say, in the x-direction) is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction for one-dimensional heat conduction as:

Heat is conducted in the direction

of decreasing temperature, and
thus the temperature gradient is
negative when heat is conducted
in the positive x -direction.

7
• The heat flux vector at a point P on
the surface of the figure must be
perpendicular to the surface, and it
must point in the direction of
decreasing temperature
• If n is the normal of the isothermal
surface at point P, the rate of heat
conduction at that point can be
expressed by Fourier’s law as

8
• Examples:
 electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R, Heat
 fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
 exothermic chemical reactions.
Generation
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h·ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as
position within the medium.

9
Example 2-1
• The resistance wire of a 1200-W hair dryer is 80 cm long
and has a diameter of D = 0.3 [Link] the rate of
heat generation in the wire per unit volume, in W/cm3,
and the heat flux on the outer surface of the wire as a
result of this heat generation.

10
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
EQUATION
Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as the wall of a
house, the glass of a single pane window, the metal plate at the bottom of
a pressing iron, a cast-iron steam pipe, a cylindrical nuclear fuel element,
an electrical resistance wire, the wall of a spherical container, or a
spherical metal ball that is being quenched or tempered.
Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be
approximated as being one-dimensional since heat conduction through
these geometries is dominant in one direction and negligible in other
directions.
Next we develop the onedimensional heat conduction equation in
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

12
 Heat Conduction
Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
(2-6)

13
14
Heat
Conduction
Equation in a
Long Cylinder

15
16
Heat Conduction Equation
in a Sphere

17
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation
An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat conduction
equations for the plane wall, cylinder, and sphere reveals that all
three equations can be expressed in a compact form as

n = 0 for a plane wall

n = 1 for a cylinder
n = 2 for a sphere
In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the variable
r by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat
generation cases as described before.

18
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
In the last section we considered one-dimensional heat conduction
and assumed heat conduction in other directions to be negligible.
Most heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be
approximated as being one-dimensional, and we mostly deal with
such problems in this text.
However, this is not always the case, and sometimes we need to
consider heat transfer in other directions as well.
In such cases heat conduction is said to be multidimensional, and
in this section we develop the governing differential equation in
such systems in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate
systems.

19
Rectangular Coordinates

20
21
22
Cylindrical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular
and cylindrical coordinate systems:

23
Spherical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular
and spherical coordinate systems:

24
BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
The description of a heat transfer problem in a medium is not complete without a full
description of the thermal conditions at the bounding surfaces of the medium.
Boundary conditions: The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the
boundaries.

The temperature at any

point on the wall at a
specified time depends
on the condition of the
geometry at the
beginning of the heat
conduction process.
Such a condition, which
is usually specified at
time t = 0, is called the
initial condition, which
is a mathematical
expression for the
temperature distribution
of the medium initially.

25
 Boundary Conditions

• Specified Temperature Boundary Condition

• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions

26
1 Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
The temperature of an exposed surface
can usually be measured directly and
easily.
Therefore, one of the easiest ways to
specify the thermal conditions on a surface
is to specify the temperature.
For one-dimensional heat transfer through
a plane wall of thickness L, for example,
the specified temperature boundary
conditions can be expressed as

where T1 and T2 are the specified

temperatures at surfaces at x = 0 and
x = L, respectively.
The specified temperatures can be
constant, which is the case for steady
heat conduction, or may vary with time. 27
2 Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-direction anywhere in the
medium, including the boundaries, can be expressed by

For a plate of thickness L subjected to heat

flux of 50 W/m2 into the medium from both
sides, for example, the specified heat flux
boundary conditions can be expressed as

28
Special Case: Insulated Boundary
A well-insulated surface can be modeled
as a surface with a specified heat flux of
zero. Then the boundary condition on a
perfectly insulated surface (at x = 0, for
example) can be expressed as

On an insulated surface, the first

derivative of temperature with respect
to the space variable (the temperature
gradient) in the direction normal to the
insulated surface is zero.

29
Another Special Case: Thermal Symmetry
Some heat transfer problems possess thermal
symmetry as a result of the symmetry in imposed
thermal conditions.
For example, the two surfaces of a large hot plate
of thickness L suspended vertically in air is
subjected to the same thermal conditions, and thus
the temperature distribution in one half of the plate
is the same as that in the other half.
That is, the heat transfer problem in this plate
possesses thermal symmetry about the center
plane at x = L/2.
Therefore, the center plane can be viewed as an
insulated surface, and the thermal condition at this
plane of symmetry can be expressed as

which resembles the insulation or zero heat

flux boundary condition.
30
3 Convection Boundary Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction
in a plate of thickness L, the convection boundary
conditions on both surfaces:

31
4 Radiation Boundary Condition
Radiation boundary condition on a surface:

For one-dimensional heat transfer in the

x-direction in a plate of thickness L, the
radiation boundary conditions on both
surfaces can be expressed as

32
5 Interface Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions at an interface
are based on the requirements that
(1) two bodies in contact must have the
same temperature at the area of contact
and
(2) an interface (which is a surface) cannot
store any energy, and thus the heat flux on
the two sides of an interface must be the
same.
The boundary conditions at the interface
of two bodies A and B in perfect contact at
x = x0 can be expressed as

33
6 Generalized Boundary Conditions

In general, however, a surface may involve convection,

radiation, and specified heat flux simultaneously.
The boundary condition in such cases is again obtained
from a surface energy balance, expressed as

34
HEAT GENERATION IN A SOLID
Many practical heat transfer applications
involve the conversion of some form of energy
into thermal energy in the medium.
Such mediums are said to involve internal heat
generation, which manifests itself as a rise in
temperature throughout the medium.
Some examples of heat generation are
- resistance heating in wires,
- exothermic chemical reactions in a solid, and
- nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods
where electrical, chemical, and nuclear
energies are converted to heat, respectively.
Heat generation in an electrical wire of outer
radius ro and length L can be expressed as

35
The quantities of major interest in a medium with
heat generation are the surface temperature Ts
and the maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in
the medium in steady operation.

36
37
VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, k(T)
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature in a specified temperature interval is
large, it may be necessary to account for this
variation to minimize the error.
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of
the thermal conductivity in the temperature range
between T1 and T2 can be determined from

38
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material with
temperature in the temperature range of interest can often be
approximated as a linear function and expressed as

 temperature coefficient
of thermal conductivity.

The average value of thermal conductivity

in the temperature range T1 to T2 in this
case can be determined from

The average thermal conductivity in this

case is equal to the thermal conductivity
value at the average temperature.

39
Example 2-17
• A 2-kW resistance heater wire whose thermal
conductivity is k = 15 W/m·K has a diameter of D = 4 mm
and a length of L = 0.5 m, and is used to boil water. If the
outer surface temperature of the resistance wire is Ts =
105°C, determine the temperature at the center of the
wire.

40
Problem 2-85
• Consider a large 3-cm-thick stainless steel plate (k =
15.1 W/m·K) in which heat is generated uniformly at a
rate of 5x105 W/m3. Both sides of the plate are exposed
to an environment at 30°C with a heat transfer coefficient
of 60 W/m2·K. Explain where in the plate the highest and
the lowest temperatures will occur, and determine their
values.

41
Problem 2-90
• In a nuclear reactor, 1-cm-diameter cylindrical uranium
rods cooled by water from outside serve as the fuel.
Heat is generated uniformly in the rods (k = 29.5 W/m·K)
at a rate of 4x107 W/m3. If the outer surface temperature
of rods is 220°C, determine the temperature at their
center.

42
Problem 2-92
• A 2-kW resistance heater wire with thermal conductivity
of k = 20 W/m·K, a diameter of D = 4 mm, and a length
of L = 0.9 m is used to boil water. If the outer surface
temperature of the resistance wire is Ts = 230°C,
determine the temperature at the center of the wire.

43