Chapter Seven
Route Surveying and Geometry of Highway
Curves
7. Route Surveying
The term Route Surveying in a very general sense may be used for the
surveys carried along the comparatively narrow strip of the territory for the
location, design and construction of any of transportation route such as
highway, railway, canal, sewers and so on.
Route surveying is conducted for the purpose of selecting the best route
between two terminal OR end station, and to establish horizontal and vertical
alignment of the selected route
Generally, Route Surveying includes all surveying & mapping activities (the
field and office work) required to plan, design, and layout(construct) and any
"Long and narrow" transportation facility.
7.1.1 Different Modes of Transportation
There are different modes of transportation:
High Way
Rail way
Water way
Air way
Pipe way
Transportation by road is the only mode, which could give maximum service to everyone.
Basic Advantages of road
Facilitate movement of men & materials from place to another
Promotes growth of trade and other economic activates
Vital for national defense - both during war & peace time
Educational & Medical facilities & cultural contacts can be maintained.
Help in enforcement of law & order
Road serve as feeders for railways, air ways & water ways the passengers and the goods materials
have to be first transported by road before reaching the reaching the rail road station, air port or port.
Natural resources are easily tapped & improved. E.g. mining of minerals.
Essential for economic prosperity & general development
Road transport requires a relatively small investment
Cont…
7.1.2 Requirements of Highway alignment
The "shape" or geometry of any transportation route is called its alignment.
The basic requirements of an ideal alignment b/n two terminal station are that
it should be:
a. Short
b. Easy
c. Safe
d. Economical
e. Short: It is desirable to have short alignment b/n two terminal stations. A
straight alignment would be the shortest path.
f. Easy: The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and
maintain the road with minimum problems.
g. Safe: The alignment should be safe for construction and maintenance
from the point of view of stability of natural slope, embankment & cut
slope and also foundation drivers & passengers. /free of accident/.
Cont…
d. Economical: The road alignment could be considerate economical only if
the total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost & vehicle operation
cost is lowest.
7.1.3 Stage in Route Surveying
The survey may be completed in four stages:
i. Map Study
ii. Reconnaissance
iii. Preliminary Survey
iv. Final location and detail surveys
i. Map Study/Desk Study
If the topographic map of an area is available, it is possible to suggest the
likely routes of the road. The main feature like rivers, hills, valleys etc. are
also shown in these maps. By a careful study of such maps, it is possible to
have an idea of several possible alternatives routes so that further details of
these may be studied later at the site.
Cont…
ii. Reconnaissance or Site Visit
After the preliminary office work, a site visit must be made to the road. When
potential route corridors have been identified from the desk study Analysis,
then a reconnaissance survey is usually employed to verify interpretations,
to help determine the preferred corridor, and to identify factors that will
influence the feasibility design concept & cost companions.
A team consisting of the following personnel makes a site inspection visit:
Highway Engineer
Geotechnical Engineer (Soils & Materials Engineer)
Surveying Engineer (Chief Surveyor)
Hydrologist
Environmentalist
Sociologist
Local administrative Personnel
Cont…
Reconnaissance survey data can either be recorded on to topographical
maps & aerial Photographs.
During the reconnaissance survey, the following information should be
determined.
Terrain classification
Location of topographical constrains, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, any
other features not identified by the desk study
Slope steepness
Soil type
Water sources, material sources & distribution
During the site inspection, the team should examine all alternatives. This
information can be combined with the results of the desk study to
determine the most appropriate alignment alternative.
Cont…
iii. Preliminary survey
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:
a. To survey the various alternatives alignments proposed after
reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information
and details of topography, drainages soil.
b. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a
good alignment.
c. To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction
aspect and to work out the cost of alternative proposal.
iv. Final location and detail survey
The alignment finalized at the design after the preliminary survey is to be first
located on the field by establishing the centerline.
Cont…
Survey teams can carry out the survey as follows:
One team for the location of the control points
One team to survey the center line & the longitudinal profile
One team to survey the cross sections, and
One team for the land acquisition survey
7.2 Geometry of Highway Curves
The design and construction of road progress include design of the
curves. The initial design on the route is generally based on the serious of
connected straight lines. In the final design, a curve is provided at
intersections if the straight line to affect the gradual change in the
direction.
Geometric design referred to the design of the road using the concept of
mathematical geometry for designing the road. The "shape" or geometry
of any transportation route is called its alignment. This includes both its
horizontal alignment (i.e. a plan view) and its vertical alignment (i.e., a
profile view). The vertical alignment is also called the grade line.
Cont…
The plan view should include:
Bearing of the tangents
Angle of intersection
Stationing
Geometric data for each horizontal curve
Topography adjacent to the center line
Existing structures affected by the project
The vertical alignment consists of straights (gradients) connected
by vertical curves in a vertical plane.
The profile view should include:
The existing ground surface Proposed route grade line
Grades (slopes) of the tangents
7.2.1 Curves Cont…
Are geometrical figures that insert between two straight alignment
intersections.
This alignment intersection derived from certain directions and
deflects to each other for some degree called deflection angle. When
the vehicle goes from the first straight to the second straight, the
change in direction is so difficult for the vehicle to go up and turn.
This becomes even more difficult in the case of the long rail.
However, if these two lines joined by a curve, the change can
comfortable and easily negotiable.
Curves are an area provided between intersections of the straight
to negotiate the change in direction gradually.
[Link] Types of curves
Based on their objectives two types curve are there:
A. Horizontal curves
B. Vertical curves
Cont…
[Link].1 Horizontal curves
Curves provides on the horizontal plane to provide change in
the direction. Horizontal curve is neither practicable nor
feasible to have straight railways or high ways in a country.
Their alignments require some changes in direction due to the
nature of the terrain, cultural features or other unavoidable
reasons such changes in direction cannot be at sharp corners
but have to be gradual which necessitates the introduction of
curves in between the straights.
Curves are regular bends horizontally provided in a line of
communication like roads, railways and in canals to bring the
gradual change of direction in horizontal plane to have a
gradual change in direction is known as horizontal curves.
Cont…
Horizontal curve has the following types
i. simple circular curve
ii. reverse curve
iii. compound curve
iv. transition curve
v. simple circular curve
A curve, connecting two intersecting straights having a constant
radius all through is known as a simple circular curve. It is
tangential to the two straights at the joining ends. In Figure. 2.1,
T1CT2 is a simple circular curve of radius R, joining the two
straights T1I and T2I intersecting at a point I.
Cont…
Cont…
Elements of Simple Circular Curve with their formulas
a) Length of the curve
Let the length of the curve T1CT2be and R be its radius.(fig.7.1)
Hence,
b) Tangent length
c) Long chord length
d) Apex distance (External)
Cont…
e) Mid-ordinate
f) P.C = Chainage on point of curvature P.C = P.I – T
g) P.T = Chainage on point of Tangency= P.C + L
Example
A circular curve has a 200 m radius and 650 deflection angle. Calculate the
elements of simple circular curves from the given figure
a. length of curve,
b. tangent length,
c. length of long chord,
d. apex distance,
e. mid-ordinate.
Cont…
Cont…
[Link].2 Transition curve
It is a curve usually introduced between a simple circular curve and a
straight, or between two simple circular curves. It is also known as an
easement curve. A transition curve has a radius, gradually changing from a
finite to infinite value or vice versa. It is widely used on highways and
railways, since its radius increase or decreases in a very gradual manner. In
Figure 2.20, T1TD is the transition curve introduced between the simple
circular curve T4DD’T5, and the straight T1I.
Cont…
Necessity of a transition curve
The effect of the centrifugal force may be neutralized if the outer edge of
the track is raised. The raising of the outer edge of the track or the outer
rail of the railways, is called super-elevation or cant. The amount of the
super - elevation depends on the speed of the moving vehicles and the
radius of the curve. In case of railways, the maximum super-elevation
should not exceed 15 cm. Thus, it is evident that outer rail should be raised
by 15 cm at the point of commencement, which is highly objectionable.
The effect of the centrifugal force may be reduced and gradual increase of
the super-elevation may be made by introducing a transition curve between
the straight and the curve.
Introduction of transition curves has following advantages:
It enables to introduce super-elevation in proportion to the rate of change
of curvature.
It avoids the danger of derailment at the point of commencement if full
amount of super-elevation is suddenly applied at the point.
It avoids over turning and side slipping of the moving vehicles.
It eliminates discomforts caused to the passengers while negotiating a
curve.
Super-elevation
When a vehicle moves from a straight to a curve, it is acted upon by
centrifugal force in addition to its own weight. The centrifugal force acts
through the centre of gravity horizontally away from the centre of the
curve and tends to push the vehicle off the track. In order to balance this
force, outer rail on railway or outer edge of highways, is raised above the
inner one. The difference in the top levels of outer and inner rails is known
as super-elevation, which depends upon the radius of the curve and the
speed of the vehicles. As all the vehicles do not run with the same speed,
the average of the fastest and slowest speeds of the vehicles is used for the
purpose of calculation of the required amount of super elevation.
Cont…
[Link].2 Vertical curves
Vertical curves are curves, in a vertical plane, used to join two intersecting
grade lines. The reduced level of these curves change from point to point in
a gradual and systematic manner. A vertical summit curve is provided
when a rising grade (T1I) joins a falling grade (T2I), as shown