Modern Physics

Albert Einstein (1879~1955) 1905 奇蹟的一年

1. On a Heuristics Point of View Concerning the Production and
Transformation of Light. 一個關於光的產生與轉換的啟發性看法
2. On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in Liquids at Rest
Required by Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat. 靜止液體裡的懸浮小粒子運
動， 需要熱的分子動力理論
3. A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions. 決定分子維度的新方法
4. Concerning the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. 關於移動中物體的電動
力學
5. Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content? 物體的慣性
取決於其能量含量嗎﹖

1: 討論光的量子 ( 粒子性與波動性 ) 與光電效應 建立量子力學基礎

2,3: 延伸布朗運動及分子存在的想法推出分子大小 熱力學 流體力學
4: 狹義相對論 時間 長度之修正新的時空關係
5: 質量的修正質量與能量可以互換 E = mc2
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重力 = 地表 /16, 衛星速度 =14000km/h, H=20000km

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1916 廣義相對論 重力場與加速度時空彎曲

1919 日蝕 太陽重力場使星光偏向證實廣義相對論
1917 廣義相對論延伸 描述宇宙 慣性參考座標 物質 重力場 空間 宇宙項 ( 常數 ) 靜態
宇宙 ?
光之激射 雷射發光原理
1921 獲得諾貝爾獎 ( 光電效應 )
1922 發表統一論 欲證明電場與磁場是一體兩面 並企圖解釋基本粒子 電子基本電荷和光
速等常數 解決量子力學的或然率與不確定論 (Failed)
1925 玻色−愛因斯坦 (Bose-Einstein) 凝聚體的預測
(1995 以雷射降溫至 10−9°K 的物質 製造原子鐘 重力計 )
1935 抨擊量子力學
1945 第一顆原子彈爆炸
1954 雷射的前身 梅射 (maser) 誕生
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The Michelson-Morley Experiment

V
t1 d
t2

d
v
mirror

V V

v mirror

Detector
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Modern Physics
Chapter 1 Relativity
Postulates of Special Relativity and Lorentz
Transformation
◎ The 1st postulate:
The laws of physics may be expressed in equations having
the same form in all frames of reference moving at constant
velocity with respect to one another.
◎ The 2nd postulate:
The speed of light in free spaces has the same value for all
observers, regardless of their state of motion.
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Galilean ( 伽利略 )
transformation and
in classical physics:

Lorentz transformation
in relativity:
.
and
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Proof of Lorentz transformation

x = ct , x – ct = 0
Position C
v x’ = ct’ , x’ – ct’ = 0
S’
t’ = 0 x’ λ(x – ct) = x’ – ct’
t=0 x x = −ct , x + ct = 0
Positions A & B
x’ = −ct’ , x’ + ct’ = 0
S
μ(x + ct) = x’+ ct’
x’ = x (λ + μ)/2 – ct (λ – μ)/2
t
vt ct’ = ct (λ + μ)/2 – x (λ – μ)/2
t’
ct’
x’ = a • x – b • ct ……
A B C (A)
ct’ = a • ct – b • x……
ct Eq.(A) x’ (B)
= 0 ⇒ x = vt =bct/a ⇒ b/a = v/c
Eq.(B) When t = 0 (S), x’ = ax ⇒ x = x’/a
When t’ = 0 (S’), act = bx ⇒ t = bx/ac
eq. (A) ⇒ x’ = ax – bc(bx/ac)

x’ = a(1 – b2/a2)x ⇒ a = 1/(1 –v2/c2)1/2 = β

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Proof of Lorentz transformation:

Suppose that a flare is set off at a common origin of S and S’ at t = t’ = 0,
and the observers in each system proceed to measure the speed light c at
x and x’, respectively. We have x = ct and x’ = ct’.

x = k [k(x – vt) + vt’]

Let and
= k2 (x – vt) + kvt’

t’ = kt x’ = k(x-vt) = ct’ = c [kt

+ + ]

x = ct [ ] = ct =1

k= =β ∴ Lorentz transformation holds.

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Proof of Lorentz transformation:

Suppose that a flare is set off at a common origin of S and S’ at t =
t’ = 0, and the observers in each system proceed to measure the
speed light c at x and x’, respectively. We have x = ct and x’ = ct’.

x = k [k(x-vt) + vt’]
Let and
= k2 (x-vt) + kvt’

t’ = kt x’ = k(x-vt) = ct’ = c [kt

+ + ]

x = ct [ ] = ct =1

k= =β ∴ Lorentz transformation holds.

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Time dilation:
A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest.
A clock is at x’ in S’. When an observer in S’ find the time is
t1’, after a time interval t0, and the time is up to t2’ (all in S’).
The observer in S find the time
interval is t = t2 − t1 = = > t0. (x = 0)

∴ A stationary clock measure a longer time interval between events occurring

in a moving frame of reference than a clock does in the moving frame.

Eg. (Twin paradox) A woman leaves the earth in a spacecraft that makes a round
trip to a star, 4 light-year distant, at a speed of 0.9c. How many years younger is
she upon her return than his twin sister who remained behind?
(Sol.) 2×4c/0.9c − (2×4c /0.9c) = 5.01years
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Another simple formulation of time dilation:

(a) A light-pulse clock at rest as seen by observer in S, the time interval t0

is the light pulse travel between mirrors. Therefore we have t 0=2L0/c.

(b) A light-pulse clock in S’ as seen by observer in S, and hence we have

(ct/2)2 = L02 + (vt/2) 2, L0 = ct0/2 ⇒ t = x=0, x’=0
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Simultaneity:

Consider that a pair of time-bombs explodes at the same time t0

at x1 and x2 in S, respectively.

But in S’, t1’ = , t 2’ =

∵ t2’ - t1’= ≠0 if x2≠x2 ,

∴ The explosions do not simultaneously occur in S’ frame.

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Ex.1.1
A spacecraft is moving relative to the earth. An observer
on the earth finds that, between 1 pm and 2 pm according
to her clock, 3601 sec elapse on the spacecraft’s clock.
What is the spacecraft’s speed relative to the earth?
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1.3 Doppler Effect

w: speed of sound, V: speed of source,
1 t=0 v: speed of observer w, v, V << c
w
V Case 1: V, v = 0
λo w = fo•λo = λo/To ,
2 t = To 1 λo = λ + VTo , λ = λo – VTo
f = w/λ = w/(λo – VTo) = w/(wTo – VTo)
λ
f = To-1•w/(w – V) = fo•w/(w – V)
VT
Case 2: v, V = 0
1 t=0
w = fo•λo = λo/To•,
v
w λo = wt + vt = t(w + t) , t = λo(w + t)
λo
f = 1/t = (w + v)/λo = (w + v)/wTo
t=t 1
f = fo (w + v)/w

λ w+v
vt
f = fo
w−V
( )
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Doppler Effect
Classical Doppler effect: f = f0 ． ( )

where w is the velocity of wave,

v is the velocity of observer, and V is the velocity of source
1. v > 0 if the observer moves toward the source;
v < 0 if the observer moves away from the source.
2. V > 0 if the source moves toward the observer;
V < 0 if the source moves away from the observer.

Eg. The velocity of sound is 340m/sec. A train generates some noise as

high as 3000Hz when its velocity is 50m/sec away from an observer who is
standing at a fixed position. What frequency does he hear?
(Sol.) f0 = 3000, w = 340, v = 0, V = -50, f = f0 ．
( )
=
2615.3Hz
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Doppler effect in relativity:

Why the universe is believed to be expanding.
c: speed of light, v: speed of observer
Ⅰ Ⅱ Ⅲ

c v S’
S v v

Ⅰ: Transverse Doppler Effect in Light

x = 0, , f’ = 1/t’
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Ⅱ: Longitudinal Doppler Effect in Light

t=0
S vt = c(t – to) = ct – cto ⇨ t = to/(1 –
1 v/c)
S v :S’
t’ = t ( )
t = to vto :
2 v 1 t’ = to

t=t f ’ = 1/t’ = fo
vt
3 2 v

Ⅲ : Longitudinal Doppler Effect in Light

t=0
f ’ = 1/t’ = fo
–v
S
S’
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Doppler effect in relativity:

f = f0 ．
( )

where θ is the angle between the moving direction of the light source
and the line from the source to an observer. And v is the relative
velocity of the source (v>0 if the source and the observer approaching
each other; v<0 if they move away from each other).

Special case 1: Longitudinal Doppler effect, θ=0, f = f0 ．

Special case 2: Transverse Doppler effect, θ=π/2, f = f0 ．

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Doppler effect in relativity:

Eg. A spacecraft receding from the earth at 0.97c transmits data

at the rate of 104pulse/sec. At what rate are they received?
= 1.234×103
(Sol.) v = -0.97c, f0 = 10 , f = f0 ．
4
pulse/sec

Eg. (Red shift) A distant galaxy in the constellation Hydra is

receding from the earth at 6.12×107m/sec. By how much is a
green spectral line of wavelength 500nm emitted by this galaxy
shifted toward the red end of the spectrum?

(Sol.) v = −6.12×107, λ0 = 500,

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Ex.1.2
A Driver is caught going through a red light. The driver claims
to the color she actually saw was green (f = 5.60×1014 Hz)
and not red (f0 = 4.80×1014 Hz) because of the doppler effect.
The judge accepts this explanation and instead fines her for
speeding at the rate of $1 for each km/h she exceeded the
speed limit of 80 km/h. What was the fine?
Sol.

The fine is $1.65×108 – 80 = $164,999,920

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1.4 Length Contraction

Faster means shorter
1.0

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0
v/c

A muon has a mass 207 times that of the electron and has a
charge of either +e or –e; it decays into an electron or a positron
after an average lifetime of 2.2 μ s. v = 2.994×108m/s (0.998c)
 Twin Paradox : A longer life, but it will not seemModern Physics
longer.
Jane is on earth, and Dick is on a space voyage at 0.8c
to a star at 20 L-y away.
1 3 2 1 4 3 2 7 6 5

0 d 5 10 15 20 x [L-y]

0 t 5 10 15 20 25 t [year]

0 5 10 x’ [L-y’]
15’ 1 26’ 27’’ 15’

0 5 10 15 t’
[year’]
T = 1 + (0.8L-y)/(c – 0.8c) = 5y [⇨]
1 L-y = ct + 0.8c•t ⇒ t = 1.8-1 = 5/9 year 7 6
d = 0.8c•t = 4/9 L-y
25/5 [⇨] + 25/(5/9) [⇐] = 5 + 45 = 50 18 19 d 20 [L-y]
7 6
1 y’ = t = 1/(1 – v2/c2)1/2 = 1/0.6 = 5/3 y
d = v•t =0.8c•5/3 = 4/3 L-y t 25 [year]
26
t1 = 5/3 + 4/3 = 3 y
(25 + 20)/3 + 5/(1/3) = 30
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1.7 Relativistic Mechanics

Collision as seen from frame S: Collision as seen from frame S’:

Suppose A and B collide at y = 0.5Y, and VA=VB’. The round-trip time T0 for
A measured in S is T0=Y/VA, which is identical T=Y/VB’ in S’.
mAVA = mBVB’ = mBY/T = = mA = m B

Let mA= m0, mB = m → m

=
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Ex. 1.5
Find the acceleration of a particle of mass m and velocity
v when it is acted upon by the constant force F, where
F is parallel to v.

c
v
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m
=

Momentum: p = mv
=

Force: F = dp/dt = mdv/dt +vdm/dt

Kinetic energy: Ek =

= - m0

= + m 0c 2(
)

Ek = mc2 - m0c2
Total energy: mc2 = moc2 + EK
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Ex.1.6
A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass
1.0 kg that move apart at speeds of 0.6c relative to the
original body. Find the mass of the original body.

Find
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Ex.1.7 Solar energy reaches the earth at the rate of about

1.4kW per square meter of surface perpendicular to the
direction of the sun. By how much does the mass of the sun
decrease per second owing to this energy loss? The mean
radius of the earth’s orbit is 1.5×1011m.

P = (4πR2)P/A
= 4.0×1026W
kT~13keV
E = mc2 = P
15 MK
m = E/c2 = 4.4×109 kg
1.5×108 km
E
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Kinetic Energy at Low Speed mc2 = moc2 + KE

泰勒展開式
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1.9 Energy and Momentum

How they fit together in relativity

Massless particle : photon

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ElectronVolt (eV) 1eV = 1.602×10-19 J

1J = 1/(1.602 ×10-19) eV
The rest energy of particle
Electron:

Proton:

Ex. 1.8 An electron (m0 = 0.511 MeV/c2) and a photon have momenta of
2.000 MeV/c. Find the total energy of each.
Electron:

Photon:
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Eg. An electron has a kinetic energy of 0.1MeV. Find its velocity

according to classical and relativistic mechanics.
(Sol.)
Classical mechanics:
0.1MeV = 0.1×106×1.602×10-1 9= 1.602×10-14J = 9.109×10-31v2/2
v=
Relativistic mechanics:
1.87×108m/sec
T = 1.602×10-14 = mc2 - m0c2 = 9.109×10-31c2[ ]

v = 1.64×108 m/sec

Eg. Dynamite liberates 5.6×106J/Kg when it explodes. What fraction

of its total energy contents in this?
(Sol.) Suppose that the dynamite is 1Kg.
E = mc2 = 9×1016, 5.6×106/9×1016 = 6×10-11
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1.10 General Relativity

Gravity is a warping spacetime

視界
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Some Phenomena of General Relativity

The principle of
equivalence:
An observer in a closed
laboratory can not distinguish
between the effects produced by
a gravitational field and those
produced by an acceleration of
the laboratory.
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Photon, Gravity, and Black Holes

Gravitational red shift: The frequency of a photon
emitted from the surface of a star
decreases as it moves away from
the star. And its total energy
becomes
r >> R r
0

1. For most stars, M/R is small, △ν/ν is not apparent.

2. For white dwarf stars, M/R is large, △ν/ν is measurable.
3. For black holes, if GM/Rc2≧0.5, we can obtain Schwarzschild
radius Rs=2GM/c2, and prove that no photon can leave the
black holes.
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Starlight passing near the sun is deflected by sun’s strong gravitational field:
This phenomenon has been proved by observing and measuring the precession
of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit.
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• Homework chapter 1: 5, 9, 14, 22, 34, 44, 50

• Homework chapter 2: 2, 12, 16, 23, 29, 39, 51
1. 在觀賞”宇宙的遺產”鮑柏霍華利用三稜鏡觀測太陽光譜，發現許多黑線，
所代表的意義為何 ? (b) 太陽有沒有可能生產黃金 ? 在宇宙中可能造成金
原子的情況有那些 ?
2. 太陽 終其一生可以生產的最大元素為何 ?
3. 可以產生金 (Au) 元素的情況有那些 ?
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1. 在觀賞”宇宙的遺產”鮑柏霍華利用三稜鏡觀測太陽光譜，發現許多黑線，
所代表的意義為何 ?
2. 太陽有沒有可能生產黃金 ? 在宇宙中可能造成金原子的情況有那些 ?
3. 太陽 終其一生可以生產的最大元素為何 ?
4. 恆星之死如何產生新星 ?
5. 你身體的元素從何而來 ?
6. 銀河中心的黑洞是否可能吞噬整個星系 ? why?
7. 大強子對撞實驗中將一質子加速至 0.999999c 的速度時，此質子的質量
為靜止的多少倍？其動能為多少 GeV ？ mproton = 0.938 GeV/c2
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1. A Driver is caught going through a red light. The driver claims to

the color she actually saw was green (f = 5.50×1014 Hz) and not
red (f0 = 4.90×1014 Hz) because of the Doppler effect. The judge
accepts this explanation and instead fines her for speeding at
the rate of $1 for each km/h she exceeded the speed limit of 100
km/h. What was the fine?
2. An electron has a kinetic energy of 0.2 MeV. Find its velocity
according to classical and relativistic mechanics.
3. A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass 2.0
kg that move apart at speeds of 0.8c relative to the original body.
Find the mass of the original body.
4. Star energy reaches the similar earth at the rate of about 1.5kW
per square meter of surface perpendicular to the direction of the
sun. By how much does the mass of the star decrease per
second owing to this energy loss? The mean radius of the
earth’s orbit is 2.1×1011m.
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1. An electron has a kinetic energy of 0.2 MeV. Find its

velocity according to classical and relativistic mechanics.
2. 在觀賞”宇宙的遺產”鮑柏霍華利用三稜鏡觀測太陽光譜，發現許多黑線，
所代表的意義為何 ? (b) 太陽有沒有可能生產黃金 ? 在宇宙中可能造成金
原子的情況有那些 ?
3. 太陽 終其一生可以生產的最大元素為何 ?
4. 可以產生金 (Au) 元素的情況有那些 ?