BASIC MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES (BMP)

Dr. Trupti Ranjan Mahapatra

Associate Professor
Dept. of Production Engineering
VSSUT, Burla
Melting Furnaces
 CASTING PROCESSES
Core Making
Pattern Making
(if Needed)

MELTING AND
Sand
Preparation of
Mold making
POURING
sand
PROCEDURE

Raw
Meltin Pouring
Material
g

Solidification
and cooling

Removal of Cleaning and

Finished Casting
Sand Mold Inspection

MELTING
FURNACES
 Types of Melting Furnaces
Oxy-fuel Furnace: Solid/Gaseous
Fuel:
Cupola: Used for melting cast iron.
Crucible Furnace: Can be pit or tilting:
Used for non-ferrous metals and
alloys such as Al, Zn, brass, bronze
etc.
Electric Furnaces:
Resistance Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace
Induction Furnace
Any type of materials. Usually used
 Oxy-fuel Furnace
• Uses a fuel gas such as propane,
natural gas or acetylene
• Oxygen or atmospheric air is blown
in and combined with fuel: C+O →CO -
2 2
393kJ/mole

• Heat from combustion melts the

charge
Cupola
Furnace
Zones in Cupola
Zones in Cupola cont.
Zones in Cupola cont.
Working of Cupola
Working of Cupola cont.
Working of Cupola cont.
Working of Cupola cont.
 Resistance Furnace

• A current passed through a material

resulting in ohmic heating
• Radiation heats charge material
• Some convection and conduction occurs
 Electric Arc Furnace
• A current is passed from separate
electrodes creating arcs of ionized gas
• Heat is transferred from the arc into
the charge material
• Can be either DC or AC
Electric Arc Furnace cont.
Electric Arc Furnace cont.
 Induction Furnace
• A current is passed through a water
cooled coil near or around the
charge
• Eddy currents are produced in the
charge material in response to the
coil current
• Heat is generated
through ohmic
heating in the
material
 Induction Furnace cont.

It consisted of an annular
channel surrounding a
core of laminated iron
sheets. Molten metal is
always present in the
channel to act as a
secondary winding of
just one turn. The core is
surrounded by the
primary winding. This
was known as core-type
urnace. The capital cost
was low and the rate of
Induction Furnace cont.
Induction Furnace cont.
Induction Furnace cont.
Casting - Pouring
 Heating & Pouring
The total heat required for pouring is the sum of:
1. Heat to
2. Heat of
3. Heat to

H = ρV{Cs∙(Tm-To) + Hf + Cl ∙(Tp- Tm)}

Where, H = total heat for pouring (J)

ρ = density (g/cm3)
V = volume of metal being heated (cm3)
Cs = weight specific heat of solid metal (J/g-C)
Tm = melting temperature
T0 = starting temperature
Hf = Heat of fusion
Cl = weight specific heat of liquid metal (J/g-C)
Tp = pouring temperature
 Ladles and types of ladles
Ladle: Ladle is a refractory lined vessel which collects
the molten metal from the melting furnace and
carries till the molding boxes for pouring. Can be 20 – 35
kg to 10 tons.
Other pouring and handling equipments include: Shanks (ladle
handles), trolleys, monorails, cranes, hand wheels, tilting levers
etc.

Types of ladles: basically two types:

(a) Large Reservoir or Holding Ladle: Holds
the molten metal which is taken for pouring by smaller
ladles. Also employed when there is mismatch between
the rates of melting and using the metal. The sides and
bottom are well lined.
(b) Crane or Monorail Ladles:
(i) Lip pouring: Like pouring water from a jug. Slag is
skimmed.
(ii) Teapot Ladle: Like tea-pot, spout is inside and
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Factors affecting ‘pouring’
– Pouring temperature (vs. melting temp.)
– Pouring rate
• Too slow, metal freezes
• Too high, turbulence

– Turbulence
• Accelerate the formation of oxides
• Mold erosion and Voids
 Molten Metal Flow

• Bernoulli’s Theorem – the sum of energies (head, pressure,

kinetic, and friction) at any two points in a flowing liquid are
equal p v2 p v2
h1  1
 1
 F1 h2  2
 2
 F2
 2g  2g
where, h = head (cm); p = pressure (N/cm2);
ρ = density(g/cm3); v = velocity (cm/s);
g = gravity (981 cm/s2); F = head loss due to friction
(cm)
2 2
• v
Ignoring friction andhassuming no v
applied pressure.
1  1
h2  2
2g 2g
 Molten Metal Flow cont.

• Solving for velocity at base of sprue assuming the velocity is

negligible: in the pouring cup

v  2 gh
where, h = height of the sprue

• Continuity of Flow Law – volume rate of flow is constant:

where Q = volumetric flow rate (cm3/s)

Q v1 A1 v2 A2
• Time to fill a mold cavity: T V
MF 
Q
 Heating & Pouring
Gating systems for cont.
casting
Gating systems refer to all those elements, which are
connected with the flow of molten metal from the ladle to the
mould cavity.
Those are: (a) pouring basin, (b) sprue, (c) sprue base
well,
(d) runner, (e) runner extension, (f) in-gate, and
(g) riser.
 Heating & Pouring
Gating systems for cont.
casting cont.
Those are: (a) pouring basin, (b) sprue, (c) sprue base
well,
(d) runner, (e) runner extension, (f) in-gate, and
(g) riser.
Heating & Pouring
cont.
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont.
System: Pouring basin
Pouring molten metal directly into the mould may cause erosion;
therefore, it is poured into a pouring basin which (a) acts as a
reservoir from which it flows smoothly to the sprue, (b) holds back the
slag and dirt which floats at the top and retained to allow only the
clean metal into the mould.
The pouring basin may be (a) cut into the cope portion directly, or (b)
a separate dry sand pouring basin may be prepared.
The molten metal in the pouring basin should be full during the
pouring operation to avoid funnel-like flow (carrying atmospheric air
and slag into the mould cavity).
One of the walls of the basin is made inclined at ~ 450C to the
horizontal; the metal is poured on this face so that the metal
momentum is absorbed and vertex formation is avoided.
In order to (a) reduce the momentum of liquid flow, (b) allow
smooth metal flow without vertex or turbulence, the following
steps may be taken:
(i) the pouring basin should be deep enough (2.5 x D), (ii)
sprue radius (D/2) should be at least 25 mm, (iii) the pouring
basin may be kept full.
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont.
System: Pouring basin
cont.
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont.
System: Sprue
Sprue is the channel through which the molten metal is brought into
the parting plane where it enters the runners and gates to ultimately
reach the mould cavity.
Why the Sprue is Taper ?
• The molten metal when moving from top to down gains in
velocity so that, in case of vertical sprue wall, the molten
metal requires smaller volume at the bottom. Thus, there
will be void at the bottom which will be of low pressure
zone attracting aspirated air through the mould which is
permeable. To prevent air bubbles from becoming
entrapped (aspirated) into the molten metal stream, the
sprue diameter is tapered such that the volumetric flow
rate remains constant throughout the length of the sprue.
Q pour vtop Atop vbottom Abottom
where, vbottom > vtop thus, Atop > Abottom
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont.
System: Sprue cont.

Q pour vtop Atop vbottom Abottom

The bottom portion is also known as

choke portion.
Since the velocities are proportional to the
square of the potential heads, as can be
derived from Bernoulli's equation,
A top √(h top )=A bottom √(h bottom )
The square root suggests that the profile of
the sprue should be parabolic which is
inconvenient in practice. Therefore, a
straight taper is preferred which has
been found, in practice, to be adequate to
effectively reduce the air aspiration as well
as increase the flow rate compared to a
cylindrical sprue.
 Pouring Example
The height of a downsprue is 10cm, cross-sectional area at
the bottom is 2cm2 (dia.= 1.6cm), at the top 4cm 2 (dia.=
2.25cm), and the area of pouring cup is 38.5cm 2 (dia.= 7cm)

What is the velocity at the bottom of the

downsprue?
What is the volume flow rate?
What is the velocity at the top of the downsprue?

What is the vertical flow velocity within the pouring

 Pouring Example cont.

What is the velocity at the bottom of the downsprue?

2
2
v= gh  2(981cm / s )(10cm) = 140 cm/s
What is the volume flow rate?
Q = v2A2 = (140 cm/s)(2cm2) = 280 cm3/s
What is the velocity at the top of the downsprue?
Q = v1A1 → v1 = (Q/A1) = (280cm3/s)/4cm2 =
70 cm/s
What is the vertical flow velocity within the pouring
cup?
Q = v A → v = (Q/A) = (280/38.5) = 7.3 cm/s
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont. System: Sprue Base
Well
Sprue Base Well (SBW) is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of
the sprue to reduce the momentum of the molten metal: (a) some of
the velocity gained by the molten metal is lost, as a result, mould
erosion is reduced, and (b) the molten metal changes its direction
and flows into the runners in a more uniform way.
A general guide-line for the SBW proportions are:
(a) SBW area = 5 X (sprue choke area)
(b) SBW depth = ~ depth of the runner
(c) for a narrow and deep runner, the SBW diameter should
be
(i) 2.5 times the width of the runner in a two-runner
system, and
(ii) twice its width in a one-runner system
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont.
System: Runner
Runner is generally located in the horizontal plane (parting plane), which
connects the sprue to its in-gates, thus allowing the metal enter the mould
cavity. The general practice is: (a) The runners are normally made
trapezoidal in cross-section
(b) for ferrous metals, the runners are cut in the cope and the in-
gate in the drag; thus, the slag and dross are trapped in the
upper portion.
(c) For effective trapping of slag, runners should flow full.(amount
of molten metal flowing flowing the down sprue › the amount
flowing through the in-gate).
Runner Extension is made a little further the in-gate so as to trap
the slag.
Whirl gate: another method to trap the slag utilizing the principle of
centrifugal action.
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of cont.
Gating System:
Gates or In-
gates
Gates or In-gates
are the openings
through which molten
metal enters the
mould cavity. The
shape and the cross-
section should be
such that it can be
easily broken after
casting process is
complete.

Based on application,
various gates are
used in casting
design. Those are: (a) Gating nomenclature.
Top Gate, (b)
Bottom Gate, (c)
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gatingcont. System: Gates or In-
gates cont.
Top Gate : Molten metal enters the mould from the top.
Features and advantages are: (a) hotter metal at the top, so a
favourable temperature gradient towards the gate, (b) the
mould is filled very quickly, (c) requires minimum of additional
runners, therefore provides higher casting yield, (d) uses
direct pour etc.
Disadvantages: metal falls directly into the mould cavity from
height, so (i) mould erosion, (ii) turbulence, (iii) formation of
dross occurs.
Suitable for (a) ferrous metals (not suggested for non-
ferrous), and (b) for simple casting shapes, which are
essentially shallow in nature.
To reduce erosion, pencil gates are provided in the pouring
cup.
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of [Link]: Gates or In-
gates
Bottomcont.
Gate: Molten metal enters the mould from the
bottom.
Features and advantages are: (a) hotter metal at the bottom,
so un-favourable temperature gradient, hence, (b) requires
additional/side runners, therefore provides lower casting
yield, (d) uses direct pour etc.
Disadvantages (a) molten metal entry is slow and hence, no
mould erosion, (ii) no turbulence, (iii) no formation of dross.
Suitable for (a) very deep moulds, and (b) preferable with side
risers since metal enters directly to the riser, not through the
mould cavity.
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gatingcont. System: Gates or In-
gates
Partingcont.
Gate: Molten metal enters the mould at the parting
plane (part of casting in the cope and part in the drag).
Features and advantages are: (a) For the mould cavity in the
drag, it is top gate, for the cavity in the grag, it is bottom
gate, thus derives the best of both the types of gates, (b)
easiest and most economical in preparation.
Disadvantages (a) When the drag portion of the mould is deep
mould erosion and dross formation occurs, so not suitable for
non-ferrous castings. (this can be avoided by making the gate
area large so that metal flow velocity is minimized).
Most widely used gate in sand castings.

Step Gate: Molten metal enters the mould through a number

of in-gates, arranged in vertical steps.
Features and advantages are: The size of in-gates are normally
increased from top to bottom such that the material enters
the mould cavity from the bottom-most gate and then
progressively moves to the higher gates; this ensures a
gradual filling of the mould without any mould erosion.
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of [Link]: Gates or In-
gates
Partingcont.
Gate and Step Gate:
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont.
System: Riser
Risers: Most of the foundry alloys shrink during solidification, as a
result voids form in the castings. To avoid this, a reservoir of
additional hot metal, called riser, is maintained from which hot
metal flows when need arises. These are also called hot spots
since they remain hot till the end.
Risers are designed keeping the following points in mind:
(a) The metal in the riser should solidify at the end.
(b) The riser volume should be sufficient for
compensating the shrinkage in the casting.
The risers are normally the following types:
(1) Top Risers: These are open to the atmosphere, hence heat
loss due to radiation and convection, which can be reduced by
insulation through Plaster of Paris or asbestos sheet. These are
most conventional and convenient to make, but their positioning is
limited.
(2) Blind Risers: These are completely concealed inside the
mould cavity itself; would lose heat slowly, and hence more effective.
Also it can be located more conveniently in comparison to the top
risers.
(3) Internal Risers: These are enclosed on all sides by the
 Heating & Pouring
Elements of Gating cont.
System: Riser cont.
The risers are normally the following types:
(1) Top Risers: These are open to the atmosphere, hence heat
loss due to radiation and convection, which can be reduced by
insulation through Plaster of Paris or asbestos sheet. These are
most conventional and convenient to make, but their positioning is
limited.
(2) Blind Risers: These are completely concealed inside the
mould cavity itself; would lose heat slowly, and hence more effective.
Also it can be located more conveniently in comparison to the top
risers.
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Elements of Gating System: Chill
Chills: Chills are essentially large heat sinks. Whenever it is not
possible to provide a riser, a part of the casting which is heavy, a chill is
placed close to it so as to absorb heat quickly from the larger mass
making the cooling rate equal to that of the thinner sections. This does
not permit formation of a shrinkage cavity, however, hard spots may
form at the contact area due to faster cooling rate.

Chills: Chills are metallic objects having a higher heat

absorbing capability than the sand mould. The chills can be of two
types – external, and internal.
 Heating & Pouring
Casting yield cont.
All the metal that is used while pouring does not end up as a casting;
hence, the casting yield is the proportion of the actual casting mass,
W, to the mass of metal poured into the mould, w, expressed as a
percentage as follows:
Casting yield = (W/w) X 100
Typical components in the casting system are:
New material + Scrap metal = Metal melted
Metal melted = Metal cast + Melting losses
Metal cast = Scrap castings + Fettling losses + Actual casting +
Runners & Risers
Casting yield depends on:
(a)Casting material (materials shrinking heavily result in lower casting
yield).
Casting description Yield range, Casting description Yield range,
(b)Complexity of shape (massive
% and simple shapes have higher%yield).
Simple shape and 85 - 95 Steel small pieces 35 – 45
massive
Steel simple shape 75 - 85 CI heavy / small 65 – 75 / 45 –
pieces
The higher the casting yield, the higher is the economics 55
of
Steel heavy machinery 55 - 65 Aluminium 25 - 45
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Gating system design
One of the objectives of the gating system design is to fill the mould in
smallest possible time; the time for complete filling of the mould is
termed ‘pouring time’ and is a very important criterion for design. Too
long a time needs higher pouring temperature; too fast means turbulent
flow.
The pouring time depends on:
(a) Casting material (looses heat faster/slower),
(b) Complexity of the casting,
(c) Section thickness and casting size.
Since the thickness of casting is effected to a great extent by the ratio
of surface area to volume, it is an important variable to calculate the
optimum pouring time, besides the mass of the casting itself.
Chvorinov's Rule uses this criteria.
Cooling curve provides an idea for ‘solidification time’.
There are some standard methods to calculate the pouring time
for different casting materials.
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Gating system design cont.
There are some standard methods to calculate the pouring time
for different casting materials.
Material Pouring time, t (s)
Grey CI, ‹ 450 kg (Typical for K [1.41 + (T/14.59)]√W (6-
20/100 kg) 10/15-30)
Grey CI, › 450 kg (Typical for 100 K [1.236 + (T/16.65)] 3√W
000 kg) (60-180)
Steel (2.4335 – 0.3953 logW) √W
Shell moulded ductile iron (vertl. K1 √W
pouring)

Here, KCopper alloy castings K2 √W

3
= (Fluidity of iron in inches)/40, T= average section thickness,
mm, W = mass of the casting, kg, K1 = 2.080 for thinner sections,
= 2.670 for sections 20 – 25 mm thick, = 2.970 for heavier sections,
K2 is a constant given by : top gating: 1.30, bottom gating: 1.80, brass:
1.90, Tin bronze: 2.80
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Gating system design cont.
Choke area: Once the pouring time is optimized, the next objective
is to optimize the choke area. Choke happens to be either (i) at the
bottom of the sprue, or (b) in the runner itself (in case of straight
sprue).
Choke area is the main control area which meters the metal flow into
the mould cavity so that the mould is completely filled within the
calculated time.
Thus, the first element to be designed in gating system is sprue size
and its proportions, and then the choke area.
The choke area can be calculated using Bernouli’s equation as:
A = [W/{ d t C √(2gH)}]
Where, A: choke area, mm2; W: casting mass, kg; t: pouring time, s; d:
mass density of the molten metal, kg/mm3; g: acceleration due to
gravity, mm/s2; H: effective metal head (sprue height), mm; C:
efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system used.
The effective sprue height, H, depends on the (i) casting dimensions,
and (ii) types of gating used; and can be calculated:
(a)Top gate: H = h; (b) Bottom gate: H = h – c/2; (c) Parting
gate: H = h – p2/2c.
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Gating system design cont.
The efficiency coefficient of the gating system depends on
the various sections that are normally used in a gating system.
The elements of gating system should be circular in cross
section so as to result in lower surface area to volume ratio
which reduces heat loss and friction.
Streamlining the various gating elements would greatly
increase volumetric efficiency.
Whenever a runner changes direction or joins another runner
or gate, there is some loss in metal head.
Overall, the efficiency of gating system is:
C = 1/[√{ 1 + K1(A2/A12) + K2(A2/A22) + …}]
Where, K1, K2,…: loss coefficients occurring at changes in direction or
area; A1, A2, ..: areas under down stream from changes; A: the choke
area.

All the times, C need not be calculated, rather, the average

values of the efficiency factor are provided in tabular form for
various typical gating systems.
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Gating system design cont.
Values of loss coefficients for various gate elements.

Gate element Shar Round

p
Sprue entry from pouring cup 0.75 0.20
Bend of sprue into runner 2.00 1.00
Right angle bend in runner: square cross section 2.00 1.50
-do-: round cross section 1.50 1.00
Junction at right angles to runners 4.0- -
6.0
Junction with 25% or more area reduction from 0.50
runner into in-gates
Runner choke when choke area ~ one third runner 2.00
area + sprue into runner
 Heating & Pouring
cont.
Gating system design cont.
Efficiency coefficient, C, for various gating systems, (choke is
provided in the runners)

Type of system Papered choked Straight sprue runner

sprue choke
Single runner entering 0.90 0.73
runner
Two runners with multiple 0.90 0.73
in-gates, no bends in
runner
Two runners with multiple 0.85 0.70
in-gates, 900 bends in
runner
 Heating & Pouring
Gating ratios cont.
The gating ratio refers to the cross sectional areas between the
sprue, runner and in-gates and is generally denoted as:
sprue area: runner area: in-gate area
Depending on the choke area, there can be two types of gating
system:
(1) Non-pressurized: (a) choke at the bottom of sprue base, (b)
total runner area and in-gate area higher than the sprue area, (c) no
pressure on metal flow, so no turbulence, (d) suitable for drossy
alloys like Al-, Mg- alloys, (e) have tapered sprue, sprue base wells,
and pouring basins.
Typical example: sprue area: runner area: in-gate
area :: 1:4:4
Disadvantages: May fill partially (allowing air aspiration) unless
proper care is taken (tapered sprue, runners are maintained in drag
and in-gate in cope).
(2) Pressurized: (a) in-gate area is the smallest (maintains back
pressure, results turbulence, flows fully, minimizes aspiration, can
allow use of straight sprue), (b) When multiple gates are used, this
system allows all the gates to flow full, (c) provides higher casting
 Heating & Pouring
Gating ratios cont. cont.

Illustration of gating ratio.

 Heating & Pouring
Gating ratios cont. cont.
For a runner design: (a) no sharp corners or sudden change of
sections to avoid turbulence, (b) traditionally, trapezoidal runner is
used (even though circular is the best for heat-loss factor) to reduce
turbulence, (c) for rectangular runner, width is twice as that of depth.
SOME GATING RATIOS USED IN PRACTICE

Metal/alloy Gating ratio

Aluminium 1:2;1 / 1:3:3 / 1:4:4
Aluminium bronze 1:2.88:4.8
Brass 1;1:1 / 1:1:3 /
1.6:1.3:1
Copper 2:8:1 / 3:9:1
Grey cast iron 2:1.5:1 / 2:3:1
Magnesium 1:2;2 / 1:4:4
Malleable iron 1;2:9.5 / 1.5:1:2.5 /
2:1:4.9
Steel 1:1;7 / 1:2:1 / 1:2:1.5
 Heating & Pouring
In-gate design cont.
In-gate design: The in-gates are generally made wider compared
to the depth, up to a ratio of 4; this facilitates in the severing of
gating from the casting after solidification.
It may sometimes be preferable to reduce the actual
connection between the in-gate and the casting by means of
a neck down, wash burn or dry sand core so that the removal
of the gating is simplified.
The following points should be kept in mind while choosing the
positioning of the in-gates:
(a) Should be placed along the longitudinal axis of the mould
wall,
(b) Should not be placed (i) near a protruding part (to avoid
striking of the mould wall by molten metal stream), (ii) near a
core print or chill,
(c) In-gate cross-sectional area should be smaller than the
smallest thickness of the casting (in-gate solidifies first and
isolates the casting from the gating system).
Small castings may have a single in-gate; large or complex
casting need multiple in-gates.
 Solidification Time
Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal
 Solidification of Alloys
• Most alloys freeze over a temperature
range rather than at a single temperature

Phase diagram and cooling curve for

50%Ni‑50%Cu
Compariso
n
 Solidification Time
TTS depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TTS Cm  
 A
where TTS = total solidification time;
V = volume of the casting;
A = surface area of casting;
n = exponent with typical value = 2;
Cm = mould constant (determined
experimentally) depends on (a) pouring
temperature, (b) casting and mould thermal
characteristics.
 Example: solidification time

• Given: Disk diameter D =

500 mm thickness t = 20
mm.
• Material: Al, Cm = 2.0
sec/mm2 in Chvorinov's
Rule, n=2  V  n
• Find: Cm  
TTSsolidification time
A
 
 Solidification Shrinkage
• Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher
density than the liquid phase
– Solidification Shrinkage %, α, and Thermal Contraction %, β
– Final metal volume, Vfinal = Vo(1-α)(1-β)
– Linear dimension change Lfinal = Lo
• Exception: cast iron with high carbon content
– Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes expansion that
counteracts volumetric decrease associated with phase change.

Shrinkage Allowance
• Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage and thermal
contraction by making mould cavity oversized
• Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final casting size
is called pattern shrinkage allowance
Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so allowances are applied
accordingly
 Directional Solidification
• To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable
for regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal
supply to freeze first and for solidification to progress from
these remote regions toward the riser(s)
– Thus, to prevent shrinkage voids molten metal is
continually available from the risers.
 Achieving Directional Solidification
• Since the riser is also similar to the casting in its solidification
behavior, the riser characteristic can also be specified by the
ratio of its surface area to volume.
• Desired directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's
Rule.
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells
Us ?
• A casting with a higher volume‑to‑surface area ratio cools
and solidifies: --- ?
– To feed molten metal to the main cavity, TTS for the riser must
be --? than TTS for the main casting
• Since mould constants of the riser and casting will be
equal, design the riser to solidify last by having its volume-
to-area ratio as compared to the main casting: ----?
– This minimizes the effects of: shrinkage .
– Sphere may provide the lowest A/V
ratio, however, the hottest metal being
at the centre, it is not taken. Rather, a
Cylindrical type is prefered.
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Caine’s method
• The ‘freezing ratio’, X, of a mould, is defined as the ratio of cooling
characteristics of casting to riser, and, based on Chvorinov's Rule, is:
X = (Acasting/Vcasting)/(Ariser/Vriser)
• Again based on the Chvorinov's Rule, Caine developed a relationship
empirically for the ‘freezing ratio’ as (known as Caine’s equation):
X = (a/Y-b) - c
where, Y: riser V/casting V, a, b, and c are constants (values in table):

Metal/alloy a b c
Steel 0.10 0.030 1.00
Aluminium 0.10 0.060 1.08
Cast iron, Brass 0.04 0.017 1.00
Grey cast iron 0.33 0.030 1.00
Aluminium bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00
Silicon bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Caine’s method cont.
The following equations are used for calculating the riser requirements

Metal/alloy Equation
LM4, height/diameter = 1 X = [33.45/(23.98 –
Y)]
LM4, height/diameter = 1.5 X = [32.09/(23.98 –
Y)]
LM11, height/diameter = 1 X = [17.11/(12.58 –
Y)]
LM4: (CuLM4, height/diameter = 1.5
2-4%; Si4-6%) and LM11: )Cu4-5%)
X = [16.75/(12.58 –
Y)]
When plotted
Nodular(volume of riser
iron in CO2 versusXX),
mould the plot line shows
= [39.44/(27.78 –
the locus of the points that separate the sound Y)] casting and
castings with shrinkages.
Caine’s method provides a simple procedure to size the risers
in sand castings.

Problem: calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and

Achieving Directional Solidification
Caine’s method cont.

Problem: calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and

diameter equal) to feed a steel slab casting of dimensions 25
x 15 x 5 cm with a side riser, casting poured horizontally into
the mould.

Solution: V of casting: 25 x 25 x 5 = 3125 cm3

A of casting: (2 x 25 x 25) + (4 x 25 x 5) = 1750 cm2
volume of the riser = (D3)/4 here, D: riser
diameter
Surface area of the riser = D2 + (D2)/4 = 1.25 D2
freezing ratio, X = (1750/3125)/(1.25 D2 / 0.25 D3) = 0.112
D
Y = (Vriser/Vcasting) = (0.25 D3)/3125 =
0.000251 D3
Substituting this in Caine’s equation, we get:
0.112 D = {0.10 / (0.000251 D3 – 0.03)} + 1.0
or, D4 – 8.9286 D3 – 119.52 D = 2490
By trial and error, we get
Achieving Directional Solidification
Modulus method
Another method for finding the optimum riser size is the ‘modulus
method’ which is more elaborate and provides a better design.
‘Modulus’ is defined as the inverse of the cooling characteristic:
(surface area / volume). It has been empirically established that if
the modulus of the riser (MR) exceeds the modulus of the casting
(MC) by a factor of 1.2, i.e., MR = 1.2 MC, the feeding during
solidification would be satisfactory.
In steel castings, it is preferable to choose a riser with a height to
diameter (= D) ratio of 1; then the volume (V) and the surface area (A)
(the bottom end of the riser is in contact with the casting and thus is
not added to A) are:
V = (D3)/4 and, A: D2 + (D2)/4
The modulus of such a cylindrical riser, MR would be:
MR = (V/A) = [{(D3)/4} / {D2 + (D2)/4}] = [{(D3)/4} /
{5(D2)/4}] = 0.2D
Since MR = 1.2 MC D = 6 MC
Thus, in this method, the calculation of the riser size is
Achieving Directional Solidification
Modulus method cont.

Though this method takes into account the cooling effect of the riser,
it does not consider exactly the amount of feeding metal required
to compensate for the shrinking of the casting. If the allowance
is made for the volume of metal to be fed to counteract the
contraction of the casting, the equation would change to:
D3 – 5.46 MC D2 – 0.050 93 VC = 0 (VC: volume of
casting)
This is valid when height-to-diameter ratio of the riser is one.
When the third term in the equation relating to feed volume is
neglected, the previous simplified equation (D = 6 MC) would be
arrived at.
With ‘chunky’ castings (cubes where the volume component may be
negligible), but for those ‘rangy’ castings (similar to plate-like
casting), the influence of the volume component becomes increasingly
significant. A parameter called ‘ranginess factor, R’, to define
the casting type may be used:
R = (Modulus of a cube of the same V of casting) /
(Modulus of casting)
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Naval Research Laboratory Method
This method, which is essentially a simplification of Caine’s
method, defines a shape factor to replace the freezing ratio, X. The
shape factor is defined as:
(Length + Width) / (Thickness)
It is presumed that computation of length, width and thickness
from the maximum dimensions of the casting is simpler than
the calculation of V and A.

Riser Design
Charts in form of graphs are available to compute riser volume
from [(L+W)/T].

• Riser is waste metal that is separated from the casting and re-
melted to make more castings
• To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is desirable for the
volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum
• Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to maximize
the V/A ratio, this allows riser volume to be reduced to the
minimum possible value
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Feeding aids
For a riser to be effective two conditions must be taken into
consideration:
1. Solidification of the riser should last longer than or
at least as long as that of the casting.
2. The riser should provide adequate feed metal to
compensate
To increase thefor the solidification
efficiency shrinkage
of the risers, feedingofaids
the are
casting
provided.
Feeding aids can be either exothermic material (graphite or
charcoal powder, rice hulls, or thermit mixtures), insulation in the
form of insulating material (cellulose material such as rice husk), or
riser sleeves (fire-clay, saw dust, plaster of Paris).
In presence of aids, modulus of the riser may be reduced through
introduction of a factor f, called modulus extension factor (MEF):
Reduced Modulus, Mr = [(1.2/f)MC]
 Sleeve
• Use of sleeves
s
• Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A
ratios away from riser, so freezing occurs first in
these regions, and the liquid metal supply for
the rest of the casting remains open

Sleeves will delay the

solidification time of the riser.
Hence it will reduce the riser
volume compared to without
sleeves
Sleeves
cont.

Use of Sleeves
Sleeves
cont.
Problem-1
A 100-mm (4-in.) thick square plate and a right
circular cylinder with a radius of 100 mm (4 in.)
and a height of 25 mm have the same volume. If
each is to be cast with the use of a cylindrical riser,
will each part require the same-size riser to ensure
proper feeding? Explain.

Problem-2
A hollow cylinder casting
design is shown in right, r2
express the solidification time
(assume the constant n = 2 is
known) n
h
V 
TTS C m   r1
 A
Solution-1
First note that it is important for the riser to solidify after
the casting has solidified.
A casting that solidifies rapidly would be expected to
require a smaller riser than one that solidifies over a
longer period of time.
Let’s now calculate the relative solidification times.
For the cylindrical part, we have V = πr2h = π(4)2(1) =
50.3 in3
And A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2π(4)2 + 2π(4)(1) = 125.7 in2
Thus time to solidify for the cylinder = C(50.3/125.7)2 =
0.160C
For a square plate with sides L and height h, we have
V = 50.3 = L2h = L2(4), or L = 3.55 in.
And A = 2L2 + 4Lh = 2(3.55 in)2 + 4(3.55 in)(4 in) = 82.0
in2
Thus time to solidify for the plate = C(50.3/82.0)2 =
0.376C
Problem-3

A certain mold has a sprue whose length is 20 cm

and the cross-sectional area at the base of the
sprue is 2.5 cm2. The sprue feeds a horizontal
runner leading into a mold cavity whose volume is
1560 cm3. Determine:
(a) velocity of the molten metal at the base of
the sprue,
(b) volume rate of flow, and
(c) time to fill the mold.
Solution-3:
(a)The velocity of the flowing metal at the base of the sprue is
given by 2 gh
v=
(b) The volumetric flow rate is
Q = (2.5 cm2) (198.1 cm/s) = 495 cm3/s
(c) Time required to fill a mold cavity of 1560 in.3 at this flow
rate is
MFT = 1560/495 = 3.2 s.
 Mould filling

Some
examples
Cooling of sand mould
Cooling of sand mould cont.
Solidification of casting

A. A thin layer cools and

solidifies where the metal
touches the mould
surface.
B. Heat is sucked out of the
metal
anywhere it is touching
the
mould, and crystal
dendrites
form along the surface
layer.
C. As heat continues to
leave via the
metal/mould interface,
the
dendrites grow.
D. Metal in the center finally
Solidification of casting cont.

Schematic illustration of the solidification of

metal in a mould.
 Casting cleaning
The casting should be allowed to cool and solidify inside the
mould itself. The time of cooling and the temperature to which
it should be cooled depends on (a) casting material, (b)
casting size and shape.
The cooling time may vary from less than an hour for simple
green sand mould of less than 20 kg to up to 20-30 hours for
dry sand mould of complex shapes.
The temperature should be that when no transformation
occurs; for ferrous alloys, it should be below 7000C. For thin
and fragile castings it should be as low as 4000C, and for heavy
castings a little higher than 5000C may be suitable.
Then the mould is to be broken and cleaned.
Fettling: The complete process of the cleaning of castings is called
fettling:
(a) Removal of cores: depending on the size, complexity, and
core material it may be achieved by (i) knocking off by an iron
bar, (ii) using a core vibrator, or (iii) by means of hydro-
blasting.
(b) Removal of gates and risers: Depending on size,
complexity, and core material it may be achieved by
hammering, chipping, hack-sawing, abrasive cut-off, or by
 Casting defects
Any irregularity in the moulding process causes defects in
castings which sometimes may be tolerated, sometimes
eliminated with proper moulding practice or repaired using
methods such as welding and metallization. The following are the
major defects which are likely to occur in sand casting:
(a) Gas defects: (i) Blow holes and open blows, (ii) air
inclusions, (iii) pin-hole porosity, and (iv) shrinkage cavities.
(b) Moulding material defects: (i) Cuts and washes, (ii) metal
penetration, (iii) fusion, (iv) run-out, (v) rat tails and buckles,
(vi) swell, and (vii) drop.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (i) Misruns and cold shuts, and (ii)
slag inclusions.
(d) Metallurgical defects: (i) Hot tears, and (ii) hot spots.
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (i) Blow holes and open blows,
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (ii) air inclusions,
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (iii) pin-hole porosity,
 Casting defects cont.
(a) Gas defects: (iv) shrinkage cavities.
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (i) Cuts and washes,
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (ii) metal penetration,
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (iii) fusion, (iv) run-out,
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (vii) drop.
 Casting defects cont.
(b) Moulding material defects: (vi) swell,
 Casting defects cont.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (i) Misruns and cold
shuts,
 Casting defects cont.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (i) Misruns and cold
shuts,
 Casting defects cont.
(c) Pouring metal defects: (ii) slag inclusions.
 Casting defects cont.
(d) Metallurgical defects: (i) Hot tears, and (ii)
hot spots.
 Casting defects cont.
(e) Mould preparation defects
Cast structure
Grain Structure for Pure Metals
– Fine equiaxed grains
– Columnar
• Rapid cooling at the walls produces fine
equiaxed grains
• Columnar grains grow opposite of the
heat transfer throughout the mold
following the chill zone.

D. Metal in the center finally

cools
enough to start to
crystallize.
Small seed crystals form.
 Cast structure cont.

Cast structures of
metals
solidified in square
mold
(a) pure metal,
(b) solid-solution
alloy &
(c)
heterogeneous
nucleation of
grains
Special casting processes
 Special casting processes
Sand casting processes may not be suitable and economical in
many applications; in such situations special casting processes
would be more appropriate. Some such special casting processes are:
(a)Shell moulding: A process for higher quality castings with thin
surface details.
(b)Precision investment casting: Suitable for complex shapes.
(c)Permanent mould casting: Suitable for mass production of simple
shapes.
(d)Die-casting process: Suitable for complex parts.
(i) Hot-chamber process, (ii) cold chamber process.
(e) Centrifugal casting process:
(i) True centrifugal casting, (ii) Semi-centrifugal casting, (iii)
centrifuging.
(f) Other special casting processes:
(i) Continuous casting,
(ii) Squeeze casting: Solidification of the casting in this process
is under heavy pressure (so, shrinkage defects are prevented
and dissolved gases are retained until freezing is complete);
almost a combination of casting and forging .
 Shell moulding
Shell molding is a process for producing simple or
complex near net shape castings, maintaining tight
tolerances and a high degree of dimensional
stability.
[Link] quality castings.
2. Can be manufactured for wider range of alloys.
3. AtMaterials,
Raw a lower cost than investment casting.
Equipments for shell Mould
Casting:
• Resin coated sand.
•Chromel Alumel Thermocouple, digital panel meter.
• Muffle Furnace.
•2 Kg Aluminium Silicon Alloy (LM6) scrap.
• Clay Graphite crucible.
•Fireclay.
•Asbestos Gloves, Tongs, safety goggles.
Shell moulding cont.
Shell moulding cont.
Shell moulding cont.
Shell moulding cont.
Precision investment casting
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Precision investment casting cont.
Usually one mould is used for one casting. For large scale
Permanent mould casting
production, instead of making one mould for each casting, a
permanent mould, called die, is prepared and large number (100
to 250 000) of castings can be produced, depending on the alloy
used and complexity of the casting. This process is called
‘permanent mould casting’, or ‘gravity die casting’. Usually
metallic mould is used which helps in producing castings of
good surface finish and fine-grained structure.
Advantages:
1. Because of metallic mould, product has fine-grained
structure with superior mechanical properties.
2. Very good surface finish (of the order of 4 microns or better
appearance).
3. Close dimensional tolerance. 4. Economical for large scale
production.
4. Small-cored holes may be produced in comparison to sand
casting.
5. Inserts can be readily cast in place.
Disadvantages:
[Link] limitations for maximum size and complicated shape of the
casting.
[Link] of die is high. 3. Not suitable for all materials.
Pressure casting
Die casting
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Die casting cont.
Centrifugal casting
True centrifugal casting
True centrifugal casting cont.
True centrifugal casting cont.
 Semi centrifugal casting

Semi-centrifugal casting is used for jobs which are more

complicated than those made in true centrifugal castings, but are
axi-symmetric in nature. It is necessary that these should
have a central hole, which is to be obtained with the help of
a core. The moulds made of sand or metal are rotated about
a vertical axis and the metal enters the mould through the
central pouring basin. For larger production rates, the moulds can
be stacked one over the other, all feeding from the same central
pouring basin. The rotating speeds used in this process are not
as high as in the case of true centrifugal casting.
 Centrifuging casting

The centrifuging process is used in order to obtain higher

metal pressures during solidification when casting shapes
are not axi-symmetrical. This is suitable only for small jobs of
any shape. A number of such small jobs are joined together
by means of radial runners with a central sprue on a
revolving table. The process is similar to semi-centrifugal
casting.
 Continuous casting

The Principle:
Continuous casting is
teeming of
liquid metal in a short mould
with a
false mould with a false
bottom
through which partially
solidified
ingot is continuously
withdrawn at