BASIC MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES
ME-2006
Credits [3-0-0]

Dr. Trupti Ranjan Mahapatra

Fabrication processes
 Fabrication
Fundamentals processes
Joining two or more elements to make a single part is termed
fabrication process. A large number of industrial components are
made by fabrication processes. Ex: aircraft and ship bodies,
bridges, building trusses, welded machine parts, sheet-metal
parts etc.
Fabrication is considered as secondary manufacturing process as
it uses materials coming from primary manufacturing processes such as
rolling and extrusion. Various fabrication processes may be:
(a)Mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws (temporary)
and rivets (semi-permanent). Usually holes are made.
(b)Adhesive bonding by employing synthetic glues
(thermosetting resins, thermoplastic resins, silicone resins, and
elastomers); does not disfigure the joins, can join thin sheets,
metal-non metals, but not very strong.
(c)Welding, brazing and soldering.
The choice of particular fabrication processes depends on a
number of factors:
(a)Type of assembly – permanent, semi permanent, or,
temporary.
(b)Materials being joined – steel, CI, aluminum, similar or
 Welding processes
Fundamentals
Welding is a metallurgical fusion (or recrystallization) process;
here, the interface of the two parts to be joined are brought to a
temperature above the melting point (or pressure) and then
allowed to solidify so that a permanent joining takes place. It may
or may not use a filler.
The strength of the joint is equal or more than the metals
joined; extensively used in structures and also for repair work.
Products of welding are called ‘weldments’.
Hystory of welding:
•Late 19th Century
– Scientists/engineers apply advances in electricity to heat
and/or join metals (Le Chatelier, Joule, etc.)
•Early 20th Century:
– welding was not trusted as a method to join 2 metals due
to crack issues
•1930’s and 40’s:
– Industrial welding gains acceptance and is used
extensively in the war effort to build tanks, aircraft, ships,
etc.
 Welding processes cont.
Commercial importance and limitations
Commercial importance:
•Provides a permanent joint.
•Weld joint can be stronger than parent material.
– If the filler material has superior strength characteristics
and proper techniques are used.
•Usually the most economical way to join components.
•Can be done in the field away from a factory.
Limitaions:
•Expensive in terms of labor cost.
•Most welding processes involve use of high energy, are
inherently dangerous.
•Welds are permanent bonds, not allowing for convenient
disassembly.
•The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that
are difficult to detect, these defects can reduce the quality of
the joint.
Based on
the type
of joint
and
source of
the heat
input,
the
welding
processe
s are
classifie
d:
Another
classifica
tion
chart:
 Welding processes cont.
General considerations
Before proceeding to study details of various welding processes, some
general aspects may be discussed:
Types of joints: different types of welding joints are chosen
depending on the weldment being made and the thickness of
the sheet metal used. Each of these joints can have different
welding positions.

The interface should be very clean – oil, dirt, paint or grease

must be removed by a rag soaked with organic solvent like
acetone. These solvents are to be allowed to evaporate
 Welding processes cont.
General considerations cont.
It is necessary to have proper edge preparations before welding
based on thickness.

There should be no oxide present on the surface. Those should

be removed by use of suitable flux (a flux is a material used to
prevent, dissolve, or facilitate removal of oxides and other
undesirable surface substances) forming a low-density slag
 Welding processes cont.
• For small thickness, Straight edge joints are done and for that edge
is prepared in such a way that heat of welding can penetrate the
entire depth. To facilitate the process, the joint is widened.
• For very thick plates, the welding needs to be done from both sides.
• The V- joint is easier to make and the amount of extra metal to be
filled in the joint increases greatly with an increase in the thickness.
• A U joint is preferable when the amount of extra metal to be added
to fill the joint is less beyond a certain thickness.

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 Welding processes cont.
• Necessary Considerations during fusing It is essential to clean the
interface to remove any oil, dirt, paint or grease. These would
interfere during proper fusing of metals and weaken the joints.
• To remove the oily substances from the surface, organic solvents
such as acetone and carbon tetra chlorides are used.
• Foreign substances are removed by means of cleaning with a rag
soaked in the solvent.
• Heavier oxide films are removed by acid pickling, wire brushing or
emery. Also the oxides present on the surfaces can be removed by
the use of fluxes.
• The type of flux used depends upon the operations and parent
metal that is being welded. Flux is a material that is expected to
react with oxides present and form low density slag which would
float on the top of molten metal pool protecting it from further
oxidation.
• Another requirement for welding is a filler metal. All the welding
process except resistance welding requires a filler metal to fill the
gap between the parts to be joined.
 Welding processes cont.
Some definitions
Backing: the material support at the root of a weld to aid in control of
penetration.
Base metal: The metal to be joined or cut is called base metal.
Bead or weld bead: a separate material than base metal added during
a single pass of welding.
Crater: In arc welding, it is the depression in the weld-metal pool where
the arc strikes the base metal.
Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is deposited per
unit time (kg/h).
Fillet weld: The metal fused
into the corner of a joint made
of two pieces placed at
approximately 90 degrees to
each other is called fillet weld.
Penetration: It is the depth up
to which the weld metal
combines with the base metal
Butt Fillet
as measured from the top
weld weld
surface of the joint.
 Welding processes cont.
Some definitions cont.
Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joined by welding are
nearest.
Tack weld: A small weld, generally used to temporarily hold the two
pieces together during actual welding, is the tack weld.
Toe of weld: It is the junction
between the weld face and the
base metal.
Torch: In gas welding, the torch
mixes the fuel and
oxygen and controls its
delivery to get the desired
flame.
Weld face: It is the exposed
surface of the weld.
Weld metal: The metal that is
solidified in the joint is called
weld metal. It may be only a
base metal or a mixture of base metal
and filler metal.
Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or electrode along
the length of the joint which results in a bead is a weld pass.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas welding
Gas welding, also called Oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW), derives the
heat from the combustion of a fuel gas such as acetylene (high
temperature is generated) in combination with oxygen. The process
is fusion-welding process wherein the joint is completely melted to
obtain the fusion. The heat produced by the combustion of gas is
sufficient to melt any metal and as such is universally
applicable. The process is also called Oxy-Acetylene Welding
(OAW).
Characteristics of fuel
Heat gasesMJ/m3
content,
Gas Chemic Flame T,
al Primar Seconda Tota 0
C
formul y ry l
a
Acetylene C2H2 18.97 36.03 55 3100
Propylene C3H6 16.38 71.62 88 2500
Propane C3H8 9.38 83.62 93 2450
Methyl acetylene C3H4 21.0 70.00 91 2927
propadiene
Hydrogen H2 - - 10 2390
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding
The following two reactions occur:
(1)(inner white cone) partial combustion:
C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + 448 kJ/mol
(2)(outer blue envelope) total combustion:
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + 812
kJ/mol
Though more heat is released in the second stage, since it is distributed in
a larger volume the temperature of the flame is lower.
The temperature produced in second stage is used for preheating the steels
and the temperature produced in the first stage is used for melting the steel
joint.
Gas O2 supplied, O2 supplied, O2 supplied,
Oxygen consumption m for
3 fuel
/m3 by gases
torch (formneutral
3 flame) m
/m3 total with
3
/kg complete
of fuel
combustion
Acetylene 1.3 2.5 1.18
MAPP* 2.5 4.0 1.38
Propylene 3.5 4.5 1.94
Propane 4.3 5.0 2.32
Natural gas 1.9 2.0 2.80
MAPP*: Methyl acetylene propadiene (stabilized)
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles:
Base metal is melted, Filler metal may be added,
Heat is supplied by various means: Oxyacetylene gas
(or, Electric Arc, Plasma Arc, Laser)

Weld metal protection:

During fusion welding, the molten metal in
the weld “puddle” is susceptible to oxidation.
Must protect weld puddle (arc pool) from the
Atmosphere. The methods:
Weld Fluxes, Inert Gases, Vacuum
Typical fluxes:
SiO2, TiO2, FeO, MgO, Al2O3
-Produces a gaseous shield to prevent
contamination
-Act as scavengers to reduce oxides
- Add alloying elements to the weld
-Influence shape of weld bead during
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.:

Inert gases: Argon, helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide

- Form a protective envelope around the weld area
Used in: MIG, TIG, Shield Metal Arc
Vacuum:
- Produce high-quality welds
- Used in electron beam welding
- Nuclear/special metal applications:
Zr, Hf, Ti
- Reduces impurities by a factor of
20 versus other methods
- Expensive and time-consuming
Types of fusion welding:
- Oxyacetylene Cutting/Welding
- Shielded Metal Arc (“Stick”)
- Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
- Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.: Fusion weld joint

Fusion Zone
- A mixture of filler metal and base metal that has completely
melted
- High degree of homogeneity among the component metals
that have been melted during welding.
- The mixing of these components is motivated largely by
convection in the molten weld pool.
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.: Fusion weld joint cont.
• Weld Interface
– The narrow boundary that separates the fusion zone
and the heat affected zone
– This interface consists of a thin band of base metal that
was melted or partially melted (localized melting within
the grains) during the welding process, but immediately
solidified before any mixing could take place
• Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
– The metal in this region has experienced temperature
below its melting point, but high enough to change the
microstructure
– This metal consists of the base metal which has
undergone a heat treatment due to the welding
temperatures, so that its properties have been altered.
– The amount of metallurgical damage in the HAZ
depends on the amount of heat input, peak temp
reached, distance from fusion zone, time at elevated
temp, cooling rate, and the metal’s thermal properties
– The effect on the mechanical properties is usually
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.: Fusion weld joint cont.

• Unaffected Base Metal Zone

– Where no metallurgical change has occurred
– The base metal surrounding the HAZ is likely to be in a state
of high residual stress, due to the shrinkage in the fusion zone
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene flames
Neutral flame: In neutral flame, all the
acetylene is burnt releasing all the available
heat; thus, this is the most desirable flame to
be used in oxy-acetylene welding
Carburizing or reducing flame:
Less O2 is provided so that all carbon is not
burnt giving a third phase between the ‘white’
and ‘blue’ flames called ‘ intermediate flame
feather’. The Extra carbon goes to the weld
and the metal appears to boil;
causes steel to become hard and brittle.
Oxidizing flame:
Oxygen is excess, complete combustion, some excess
oxygen available whichoxidizes the weld/metal.
Temperature is higher.
Used in those cases where the oxide coating
is helpful and acts as a protection.
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 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene flames cont.

Flame adjustment for oxy-acetylene

welding
Metal Flame Metal Flame
Mild steel Neutral (N) Al, Ni-alloys Slightly
carburizing
High carbon Reducing Brass Slightly oxidizing
steel
Grey cast iron (N), slightly Copper, (N), slightly
oxidizing Bronze oxidizing
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding equipment
1. Gas Cylinders:
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators:
Working pressure of oxygen:
1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene:
0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure depends
upon the thickness of the work
pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
 Oxy-acetylene welding equipment cont.
Acetylene generator: Acetylene can be generated from a generator
and can be used instead of using acetylene cylinder. It is usually produced
by a reaction between calcium carbide (CaC2) and water which is
instantaneous:
As acetylene isCaC 2 + Hexplosive
highly 2O = C2H2at + Ca(OH)
a pressure
2
more than 200 kPa, hence it is stored in a cylinder
filled with 80 to 85% porous material such as
calcium silicate and then filled with acetone which
helps in storing acetylene at a much higher
pressure than permitted.
The presence of acetone in flame gives a purple
colour which is not desirable as it reduces the
flame temperature.
Therefore during release of acetylene care should
be taken so that acetone should not come with
acetylene. Also acetylene can be produced by
acetylene generator in place of acetylene cylinder.

Oxy-acetylene welding Acetylene

• The acetylene valve on the torch is opened slightly with the help of a friction
spark lighter.
• The acetylene valve is opened to get the required flow of acetylene.
• The oxygen valve is slowly opened till the intermediate flame feather of the
reducing flame.
• The choice of torch size depends upon the thickness of metal to be joined.
• Torch should be held at an angle of 30 to 50 degrees from the horizontal
plane.
• Torch movement either oscillatory or circular.
• Torch tip should be positioned above the metal plate so that the white cone
is at a distance of 1.5 to 3.0mm from the plate.
• For forehand welding the torch is moved in the direction of tip.

Oxyacetylene welding
torch
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding technique
To light the flame, the acetylene valve is opened slightly and
lighted with a friction spark lighter. The flame draws oxygen from
atmospheric air and results in a reducing flame. Then the acetylene
valve is opened to get the required flow and then the oxygen valve is
opened slowly till the required flame is obtained. The adjustment of
the flame depends on the type of material to be joined.
The choice of the torch size depends on the thickness of metal
to be joined.
Metal Welding Welding Oxygen Acetylen Acetylen Welding
Some tip
thickne of the welding
rod parameters
consump for
e gas-welding
e of
speed,
ss, mm orifice, carbon
diameter, tion,steels
pressure consump m/h
mm mm m3/h , kPa tion,
m3/h
0.8 0.57 1.6 0.031 7 0.0283 -
2.4 0.92 1.6 or 2.4 0.156 13.8 0.1420 6.10
4.8 1.32 3.2 0.498 27.6 0.4530 4.27
8.0 1.85 3.2 or 4.8 0.935 41.3 0.8500 3.05
12.7 2.37
Except for 4.8 corner
the outside 1.869
joints, all48.2 1.6990
other joints 2.44
require a
filler metal to be added to fill the joint. This is done with the
help of a welding rod, its composition depends on the metal to
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding technique cont.
The torch tip should be positioned above the metal plate so that
the white cone is at a distance of 1.5 to 3.0 mm from the plate.
The torch should be held at an angle of 30 to 45 degrees from
the horizontal plane. It may be:
forehand welding or backhand welding
(1)The Torch: moves in the direction of the tip: moves
backwards
(2)Preheats: the metal before the tip melts it: anneals the
joint (stress removed)
(3)Bead width: wider narrower
(4)Penetration: shallower deeper
(5)Generally used for: thinner material thicker
material
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding technique cont.
When the welding rod is used to provide filler material, it is
necessary to hold it at a distance of 10 mm from the flame and 1.5
to 3.0 mm from the surface of the puddle (weld metal pool). This
way the rod gets preheated and on dipping gets melted
immediately; it is possible to regulate exact amount of filler
metal needed.

Proper edge preparation is necessary to achieve proper

penetration. Dimensions of the ‘root’ depends on the plate
thickness
Thicker plates require more than one-pass (movement of the
 Welding processes cont.
Advantages/limitations of oxy-acetylene
welding :
Advantages
(1)Can be used for all type of joints and in all positions.
(2)The equipment is versatile; can be used for cutting, brazing
and braze-welding.
(3)Thus, it is useful for general purpose shops, particularly
small ones.
(4)Since the source of heat is separate from filler rod, filler
metal can be properly controlled and also the heat properly
adjusted.
Limitations:
(1)This welding is somewhat slower and can not compete with
other methods.
Oxy-hydrogen welding: In ‘oxy-hydrogen welding (OHW)’,
hydrogen
combines with oxygen to generate steam and attain a temperature of
2870 0C.
However, the pool is prone to oxidation, which is controlled by
providing slightly
Oxy-hydrogen
incomplete (less oxygen) combustion. This gives rise to a
burner
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting
For cutting metallic plates, general-purpose shears are used.
These are useful for only straight-line cuts and also for cuts up to a
thickness of 40 mm. For (a) thicker plates and (b) when the cut is to
be made along a specified contour (such as making bevels for
edges to be used in subsequent welding), shearing can not be
used; oxy-fuel gas cutting (OFC) is useful. A thickness up to 2 m
can be cut.

The oxy- acetylene gas-cutting outfit is similar to that of oxy-

acetylene welding except for the torch tip. Here, the torch tip
has a provision for preheating the plate (peripheral holes)
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting cont.
The cutting tip (size) should be properly chosen for the intended
application, depending on the thickness of the plate which
determines the amount of preheating as well as the oxygen jet
flow required for cutting.
Plate thickness, Tip
O2 sizes
orificefor cutting
dia., carbon
Plate steel O orifice dia.,
thickness, 2
mm mm mm mm
Up to 3 0.65 100 to 200 3.00
3 to 6 0.90 200 to 300 4.25
6 to 25 1.25 300 to 400 5.00
25 to 50 1.60 400 to 500 6.00
50 to 100
Various process2.25
parameters for oxy-acetylene
cutting
M thick- operation
Preheat Cut O2 C2H2 Cut. Kerf
ness, orifice orifice press., press., speed, width,
mm mm size, mm kPa kPa m/min mm
3.2 to 0.71 0.81 138 to 21 0.36 to 1.5 to
9.5 207 0.46 2.5
9.5 to 1.07 0.97 207 to 34 0.31 to 2.5 to
19.1 276 0.38 2.8
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting principles
This cutting process was invented in 1887 by Thomas Fletcher.
When a high-pressure (~ 100 kPa) oxygen jet is directed against a
heated (800 to 10000C) steel plate, the oxygen jet (oxidizes and)
burns the metal and blows it away (Melting Point of oxide is
lower and is blown away easily). In principle, after the steel is
heated to its kindling temperature (8700C: when it is of cherry-
red color), it gets readily combined with oxygen giving iron oxide:
3Fe + 2O2 = Fe3O4 + 6.67 MJ/kg of iron.
The other reactions forming other oxides are also feasible:
2Fe + O2 = FeO + 3.18 MJ/kg of iron.
4Fe + 3O2 = 2Fe2O3 + 4.90 MJ/kg of iron.
These reactions are exothermic and generate heat to preheat the
metal, which may not be enough to bring it to the kindling
temperature. However, the cutting process takes care and about 30
to 40% of the metal in the ‘kerf’ (the cut portion of metal is
called ‘kerf’) is simply blown away, while the rest is oxidized.
For complete oxidation of steel, about 0.287 m3/kg of iron is
required. Since, a part of the metallic iron is blown away, the
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting principles cont.
• PIERCING and GOUGING are two important operations:
• Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from
the edge of the plate. To start with piercing is not chosen since
it may leave a ragged cut surface or imperfect start. Even when the
cut is to start at the middle of a plate, a ‘lead in’ cut from the edge
is preferred to leave the imperfections away from the cut surface.
• Forcing /Gouging, to cut a groove into the steel surface.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation
To start cutting operation, the tip must be clean, the preheat
flames to be properly adjusted to neutral flame, the torch tip to
be positioned (vertically or slightly inclined) about 1.5 to 3.0 mm above
the metal, once the kindling temperature is reached oxygen jet
to be released to start cutting.
The drag (the drag is the amount by which the lower edge of
the drag line trails the top edge) lines indicate the movement of
the oxygen stream through the metal. Drag should be exact,
not higher nor lower.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation cont.

Though gas cutting is more useful with thick plates, thin plates
(less than 3 mm thick) can also be cut using oxy-acetylene
cutting, by choosing proper tip size and angle.
For making bevels for edges for subsequent welding, the tip is
also placed at an angle, may use smaller cutting speed, even
may use low oxidizing flames to get quicker preheating.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation cont.

Gas cutting operation can be manual (for general purpose work and
for straight-line cutting), or, by a flame-cutting machine.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation cont.

Oxygen cutting is useful only for those materials which easily get
oxidized and the oxides have lower melting point than metals.
Thus, it is most widely used for ferrous materials. It can not be
used for materials such as aluminium, bronze, stainless steel and
like metals since they resist oxidation.
Because of large amount of heat is generated, structural
transformation takes place during cutting. The final microstructure
depends on cooling rate. For low C steels (lass than 0.3 % C), no
problem of hardening. For steel with higher C, pre-heating and
post-heating up to about 250 to 3000C is necessary. Cast iron is
difficult to cut because its MP is lower than that of iron oxide,
and if preheating and post-heating is not proper then formation
of white cast iron and the resultant hardening at the edges will
take place. Presence of alloying elements like Cr, Ni in ferrous
alloys will also affect oxidation and cutting becomes difficult.
Powder cutting: This is a cutting method for corrosion-
resistant steels. Injection of iron powder along with oxygen jet
provides extra heat due to oxidation of iron powder and
facilitates cutting.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding
In welding, generation of heat by an electric arc is one of the most
efficient methods. About 50% of the energy liberated in the form of heat
energy. The electric-arc welding process makes use of the heat
produced by the electric arc to fusion-weld metallic pieces.
Advantages
– Most efficient way to join metals
– Lowest-cost joining method
– Affords lighter weight through
better utilization of materials
– Joins all commercial metals
– Provides design flexibility

Limitations
• Manually applied, therefore
high labor cost.
• Need high energy causing
danger
• Not convenient for
disassembly.
• Defects are hard to detect at
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding cont.
The principle of generating arc is the flow of current (DC) between
two electrodes separated by a small distance. An arc is a sustained
electric discharge through the ionized column, called plasma,
between the electrodes. Electrons move from cathode and strike the
anode with high speed liberating about 65 – 75% of total heat at
anode (a temperature of ~ 60000C is generated). The potential
difference as well as the gap between the electrodes are critical
parameters.
Similar principle also works in case of AC with continuous
change of cathode and anode; it gives more uniform
temperature than DC.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment
The main equipment in an arc-welding set up is the source of
electric power. They are of two types: (a) Alternating (AC)
machines: (i) transformer, (ii) motor or engine-driven
alternator, (b) Direct current (DC) machines: (i) transformer
with DC rectifier, (ii) motor or engine-driven alternator.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
The welding machines can also be divided into two types based
on the characteristics: (a) Constant-current welding machines or
droop curve machines or simply droopers, and (b) Constant-
voltage or flat curve welding machines.
Though the DC arc-welding is more expensive than AC welding,
it is generally preferred because of the control of heat input
offered by it. About 70% of the heat is liberated at the anode in
DC arc welding. Using this aspect there are two arrangements:
(1)Straight polarity or DCEN
(direct current electrode negative):
(2)Reverse polarity or DCEP
(direct current electrode positive):
The power source shall supply The power source may have open
necessary current to melt the electrode circuit voltage adjustment in
at the rate required to maintain the addition to output current control.
preset voltage or relative arc length. A change in either control will
The speed of electrode drive is used to change the slope of the volt
control the average welding current. ampere curve.
The use of such power source in With a change in arc voltage, the
conjunction with a constant electrode change in current is small and,
wire feed results in a self regulating or therefore, with a consumable
self adjusting arc length system. Due to electrode welding process,
some internal or external fluctuation if electrode melting rate would
the change in welding current occurs, it remain fairly constant with a
will automatically increase or decrease change in arc length.
the electrode melting rate to regain the
desired arc length.

Constant Potential or Constant Voltage or Flat Characteristic. Drooping or Constant current or Falling Characteristic.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
(1)Straight polarity or DCEN (direct current electrode negative):
When more heat is required at the work piece
side, such as for thicker sheet or a sheet of aluminum or copper
(with higher thermal conductivity), the work-piece may be
made as anode, liberating large heat near it; penetration is
deeper.
(2)Reverse polarity or DCEP (direct current electrode positive):
For thinner materials, where less heat is needed
in the weld zone, the polarity could be reversed by making the
work piece negative, which is termed reversed polarity or DCEP
(direct current electrode positive). Here, penetration is small.

DC arc-welding is generally preferred for difficult tasks such

as overhead welding, since can maintain a stable arc..
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
The AC arc-welding set up does not differ much.
The arc-welding machines are normally specified by means of:
- Maximum rated open-circuit voltage: which is the voltage between
the output terminals when no welding is being done; normally fixed at 80
V. In fact, 40-50 V should be enough to start, and 20-30 V is sufficient
during continuous welding. The minimum welding load, Vm: Vm =
20 + 0.04 I (I: load current).
- Rated current in amperes: it is the maximum current in (A) can be
supplied by a welding machine at a given voltage. The preferred current
rating as per BIS:1851-1966, are: 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and
900 A.
- Duty cycle: It is defined by the American Welding Society (AWS): ‘The
percentage of time in a 10-minute period that a welding machine
can be used at its rated output without overloading’. Normally,
60% duty cycle is suggested. Indian standard specifies 5 min (for every
5 min transformer operation, 3 min is for welding and 2 min is for no-load
operation. Continuous, automatic welding machines need 100%
duty cycle.
The duty cycle can be calculated:
Required duty cycle = Tα = [I/Iα]2T
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
There are two ways the welding can be conducted: (1) Drag and (2)
Push methods.
It is also possible to weld with a vertical electrode.
 Welding processes cont.
Electrodes
The electrodes used for providing heat input in arc welding are of TWO
types:
(1)Consumable Electrode: This single electrode functions both as a filler
material as well as heat provider for the base metal to melt and get
welded and the electrode gets consumed. Welding speed is
maintained by choosing proper electrode from a wide range;
may be made from steel, CI, Cu, brass, bronze etc. when
consumable electrodes are used, the welding process is called ‘metal-
arc welding’. A consumable electrode may be ‘coated’ (also called
‘stick electrode’) or ‘bare’.
 Welding processes cont.
Electrodes cont.
(2) Non-consumable Electrode: Here, the filler material and the
electrode are separate and different; thus, control is separate
and better. The electrodes are usually, carbon, graphite or
tungsten; the first two are used in DC-arc welding, where as, the third
one can be used in both DC- and AC-arc welding. This process is also
called either ‘carbon-arc welding’ or ‘tungsten-arc welding’.
Stick electrodes are normally available
in diameters of 3.2, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 mm
and of length equal to 350 or 450 mm.
One of the major concerns with coated
electrodes is the moisture pick-up;
which breaks up to oxygen and
hydrogen during welding and hydrogen
enters into the metal and makes it
porous. Can be avoided either by
adding additives, or , drying the
electrode in an oven.
 Electrodes cont.
Various constituents of electrode coating are cellulose, calcium fluoride,
calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, clay, talc, iron oxide, asbestos,
potassium / sodium silicate, iron powder, ferro-maganese, powdered alloys,
silica etc. Each constituent performs either one or more than one functions.
Advantages of having a coating on a ‘coated electrode’:
(1)Shields the molten pool and protects from atmospheric oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen pick-up: Under the welding heat inert gases (CO2)
evolve and provide the gas shield.
(2)Coating provides ‘flux’: This flux forms slag which floats and protects
the puddle from atmosphere as well as provides smooth cooling.
(3)Stabilizes the arc: Some elements (different for AC-arc and DC-arc)
which stabilize the arc are added in the coating.
 Welding processes cont.
Electrodes cont.
(4) Improves strength and physical properties: Special alloying
elements are added to improves properties of the weld metal.
(5) Improves metal-deposition rate: The coating is consumed at a
slower rate, thus, helps in concentrating the arc and in reducing
heat loss from the tip making more heat available to melt and
deposit in the weld.
(6) Avoids short-circuiting problem:
Usually coatings are insulators,
thus, no short-circuiting problem
while using in narrow grooves.
(7) Providing iron powder in the
coating: This helps in maintaining
contact, increasing penetration,
and metal-deposition rate.
(8) Providing suitable slag: Coated
material may make the slag
viscous or fluid. Viscous slag is
helpful during welding in a
vertical position to cover the
puddle metal for longer time.
Coading of Electrodes

E 3 2 5 411 P

• 1st letter - E or R which indicates solid extruded (E)

or reinforced extruded (R) Electrode.
• 1 st digit – Indicates type of coating. (Cellulose,
Titania…)
• 2 nd digit – Indicates weld positions in which
electrode can be used. (F, H, V…)
• 3 rd digit – Indicates welding current conditions.
(D+. D-, A90…)
• 4 th digit – Indicate UTS and YS of all weld metal.
• Suffix (s) – P – Deep penetration electrode
H – Hydrogen controlled electrode
J, K and L – Amount of metal recovery in
case of iron powder electrode
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW
Manual Metal-Arc Welding, also called Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
(SMAW), is the most extensively used manual welding process,
which is done with stick (coated) electrodes. This is (a) highly
versatile, (b) with less expensive equipment, (c) can be used for
both simple as well as sophisticated jobs, (d) can weld in any
position, (e) at wide range of thicknesses (3 to 20 mm). Its
main disadvantage is slow speed (1 to 8 kg/h).

SMAW can be done either with

AC or DC. Range of current: 50 to
500 A,
Voltage: 20 to 40 V.
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
The electrodes are selected based on the following parameters:
(a)Composition of the base metal, (b) Tensile strength of the
joint,
(c) Thickness of the base metal – thinner metal needs lower
current setting,
(d) Required metal deposition rate, (e) Type of arc-welding
(DC or AC),
Weld position
(f) Weld Metal(flat,
thickness,
horizontal, Electrode Root elec dia,
vertical, or overhead).
position mm diameter, mm mm
Electrode sizes based on the metal thickness to be welded
All 3 to 6 3.2 -
Down hand 6 4 -
9 6 4
20 to 25 9 5
Vertical 6 3.2 -
9 to 12 4 3.2
16 to 20 5 4
Horizontal 6 to 9 4 3.2
12 to 20 6 4
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
Codings are used for making the electrodes as per the relevant
Indian standards
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
After selecting the electrode size, a choice is to be made of the
parameters of the
welding machine to be set. Next step is to have butt edge weld-
preparation.
Electrode diameter, Current, A Voltage, V
Some of
mmthe weld parameters to be used with the electrode
E603413
3.2 100 to 150 18 to 22
4 140 to 200 20 to 24
5 200 to 220 21 to 25
6 275 to 350 23 to 27
8 375 to 475 24 to 28
Next
step
is to
have
butt
edge
weld-
Prepara
tion.
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
The next step is to start the arcing which is done in two ways:
(a) Side ward scratching motion, (b) Straight down and up
motion (tapping start)

After establishing the correct arc length, the welder proceeds

to weld.

Travel angle Work angle

 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
After establishing the correct arc length, the welder proceeds
to weld.

Butt welds with multipass beads

Bead welding in the vertical position. Horizonta1 groove weld

 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
The major problems in horizontal welding are the
undercutting and sagging of
the weld bead. Though welding in any position is feasible, the
flat position is
the best since higher weld metal deposition rates as well as
good bead quality
can be achieved.

Butt joints in the flat position Undercutting in butt joint welds

 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
An AC arc once started is more stable, but it is not so with DC
arc. The
predominant problem faced with the DC arc is the ‘arc blow’, the
deflection of
the arc by means of the magnetic fields set up due to the flow
of the welding
current.

Effect of Current, voltage and

speed on bead width and depth
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
It has been observed that adding iron powder to the coating
of the electrodes
causes an increase in the metal-deposition rates as well as
the optimum current
setting to be used for good welding quality.
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW –Fusion weld zone
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW–Heat affected zone and
microstructure
 Welding processes cont.
Carbon Arc-Welding
Carbon arc welding is the earliest of the arc welding
processes. Electrode: Carbon (soft, can not take high
current) or graphite, arc control is very good, lower
current, higher electrode life, not a consumable
electrode, does not melt - gets red-hot, filler material
is separate, Single electrode welding uses
DCEN, Twin-electrode (can weld thicker
plate to a thinner plate) uses AC.

[Link] W.C.,A W.C.,A Max M

mm ,min , max CD dep,
A/mm2 kg/h
3.2 0 35 4.48 -
6 50 90 2.88 -
10 120 185 2.34 -
11 140 210 2.20 0.680
20 290 490 1.74 2.722
25 400 750 1.50 -
 Welding processes cont.
Inert-Gas Shielded Arc Welding
In welding, the objective is to make a homogeneous strong joint
which needs complete exclusion of oxygen and other gases. For
materials such as Al or Ti which quickly form oxide layers, this need
becomes more prominent. Inert-gas shielded arc welding
processes, where a high pressure inert gas with high purity flowing
around the electrode while welding provides such an atmosphere.
Inert gases: (1) CO2, (2) Ar, (3) He and mixtures of them.
(1)CO2: Its use started in 1890, most economical, decomposes to CO
and O2 under the arc and recombination takes place subsequently,
requires slightly higher current resulting in more agitation in the
weld puddle (gas pick up and reduction in weld porosity), is used
only in DC with +ve electrode (DCPE) (in DCNE causes large
electrode spatter and unstable arc which can be controlled by using an
electrode treated with Cs and Na).
(2)Ar: Its use started in 1930, preferred because: completely
inert, requires a lower arc voltage, easier to start and maintain
the arc, arc lasts longer, heavier amongst the inert gases (lower
flow rate for good shielding – overall economical), useful in
welding thin sheets and vertical, horizontal and overhead
positions, can be used both in AC and DC.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG)
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding or gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) is an inert-gas shielded arc-welding process using a non-
consumable electrode. The composition of tungsten electrode
may be: (1) Pure tungsten which is less expensive but will carry
less current, (2) The thoriated tungsten (contain 1 – 2% thoria –
thorium oxide) which is more desirable because it carries high
current and gives stable arc with ease, (3) Tungsten with 0.15
to 0.40% zirconia (zircon oxide) is in-between.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Inert gas is supplied along the annular path surrounding the
tungsten electrode. Smaller weld torches may not need cooling,
but larger ones need cooling water circulating through other
annular path surrounding the electrode.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
The TIG welding process can be used for the joining of a number
of materials though the most common ones are aluminum,
magnesium and stainless steel.
The metals can be commonly welded by TIG welding and their
Materials Electrodes Power supply Preferred Shielding
choiceused
of set-up Gas
Stainless Thoriated DCEN Argon
steel W
Aluminum All types AC Argon
Magnesium Tungsten AC Argon
(W)
Deoxidized
Cu

Power Monel Thoriated

sources: The power sourcesDCEN
used are always of Argon
the constant
W
current type. Both DC (either DCEN or DCEP) and AC can be used. In
caseHigh C steel
of DC, current carried by DCEN is about 10 times as high as
that of a DCEP
Cast iron electrode.
Thoriated The AC
DCEP is sometimes used
or DCEN to breakdown the
Argon
W in case of Al2O3 (e- move → +ve electrode). In
surface oxide, specifically
case of AC, one half cycle of AC does this. AC and DCEN give higher
penetration, thus, they are used for thick metals, where as, DCEP is
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Power sources cont.: The DC power supply used in case of TIG can
be either a steady one or more often a step-pulsed one. The step-
pulsed current provides one low level or background current
(when cooling of weld metal is effected), and the other one is the pick
current when welding is conducted.

Welding

Cooling
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Power sources cont.: When AC is used for TIG welding, the
current continuously changes direction, thus, both DCEN and DCEP
operates alternately. We can go for either balanced wave, or,
unbalanced wave. During EP half cycle of the balanced wave,
electrons from flat work piece move towards the small-sized electrode
tip which obstructs the electron flow (called rectification), and
unstable arc. In an unbalanced AC welding machine, high
voltage or high frequency and low current is superimposed on
the unbalanced wave. This maintains the shielding gas ionized
during the period when the electrode is positive and
maintains the arc continuously – advantage of this system.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Electrode: The tungsten electrode should be clean and
completely free from any kind of contamination such as molten
filler material. If the initiation of arc is by tapping, then there is
possibility of metal pick-up. Further, MP of the oxide of W is
lower and hence, shielding gas provision should continue
during cooling of the weld also.
The electrode tip should be prepared for proper welding: For
AC welding with high frequency (AC-Hf) unbalanced machine,
the tip should be pencil pointed. Hf current gets concentrated
and arc is formed easily, once it forms, the tip gets heated
and becomes ball shaped. DCEN electrode tip should be conical.
Pure W should never be conical, then the tip will melt and
enter into the weld.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Welding technique: The welding technique used for TIG is
similar to that of gas welding; edge preparation is similar,
backing of joints is sometimes preferable, current supply
depends on type of power supply and electrode, the size of
filler rods depends on the base metal thickness.
Current range for TIG welding with Ar gas and different types
Electrod Pure W Pure W W+2% Th W+2% W+2% Zr+W
e
of electrode. Th Th

dia, mm AC-HF*, DCEN, AC-HF, A AC, A DCEN, A AC-HF, A

A A
1.0 10-60 15-80 20-80 20-60 25-85 20-80
1.6 50-100 20-150 50-150 60-120 50-160 50-150
2.5 100-160 125- 130-250 100-180 135-235 130-250
225
AC-HF*:
4.0 AC200-275
with high frequency
360- superimposed.
300-450 SCB: 400-500
200-320 square close butt,
300-450
SSV:
TIG single
weldingside
ofVAl with
450AC-HF welding machine and Ar gas with
5.0
M th, 250-350El dia,
Filler, W400-550
electrode
450-Current, Sh dia,290-390
Arc sp, 500-750
Edge 400-550
Gas, L/h
mm cm/min
mm mm mm 720 A prpn
1.6-6.3 1.6-5.0 1.6-5.0 60-280 10-12.5 32-20 SCB-SSV 425-850
 Welding processes cont.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW)
Metal inert-gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately gas
metal-arc welding (GMAW) utilizes a consumable electrode and
hence, the term ‘metal’ appears in the title. There are other gas-
shielded arc-welding processes utilizing consumable electrodes
such as flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), all of which can be termed
MIG.

Though GTAW or TIG can be used to weld all types of metals, it

is suitable for thin sheets; for thicker sheets, the filler material
requirement makes TIG unsuitable. In this situation, the GMAW
comes handy.
 Welding processes cont.

Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW) cont.

In GMAW (or
MIG), the
consumable
electrode is in
the form of a
wire reel.

This electrode is fed

at a constant rate
through the feed
rollers.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW) cont.
In GMAW (or MIG), the power supply is always of the constant-
voltage type, DCEP, which provides stable arc, increased metal-
deposition rate, smooth metal transfer.

With DCEN, the arc becomes unstable, results in a large

spatter. But special electrodes having calcium and titanium
oxide mixtures as coatings are found to be good for welding
steel with DCEN.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer
In GMAW (or MIG) process, the filler metal is transferred from
the electrode to the joint; based on current and voltage used for
a given electrode, the metal transfer takes place in different
ways:
(1)Short circuit or deep transfer Deposit rate: 0.9 to 2.7
kg/h
(2)Globular or drop transfer 1.8 to 3.2 kg/h
(3)Spray transfer 2.7 to 5.4
kg/h
(4)Pulsed spray transfer 0.9 to 2.7
kg/h
(5)Rotating spray transfer 6.3 to 13.5 kg/h
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.

(1)Short circuit or deep transfer Deposit rate: 0.9 to 2.7

kg/h
occurs with relatively low current setting of the order of
75 to 175 A for an electrode diameter of 0.9 mm. The cycle
operates in stages: (a) arc ignites, (b) wire end melts, (c)
short-circuiting, and (d) pinching of electrode end.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
The number of times that the pinching takes place depends on
the inductance (inductance controls the rate at which the short-
circuiting current increases) of the welding machine used and the
parameters set. Too low an inductance gives rise to a very high
short-circuiting current and consequently high pinching rate.
With high inductance, the short-circuit current becomes low and
results in lower pinching rate. The effect of inductance,
measured in terms of the response rate (raising rate of
current due to short-circuiting, kA/s).
Wire size, Wire feed Arc voltage, [Link], Response
GMAW
mm (CO2) rate,
welding parameters
m/min V for short-circuiting
A transfer
rate, kA/s
of metal
0.8 5 18 100 50 to 150
1.2 2.5 19 120 40 to 130
1.6 1.7 20 160 20 to 75

The main advantage in short-circuit metal transfer is the

lower penetration (useful in thin sheets), no spatter (metal is
transferred only when electrode touches the work-piece), less
amount of metal is affected (because of low heat), quite
effective in case of poorly fit joints as well as difficult to reach
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
(2) Globular or drop transfer 1.8 to 3.2 kg/h occurs at
slightly higher
current than used in short-circuiting, metal melts at a higher rate,
a larger size
globule forms at the electrode tip, falls due to gravity (when
gravity overcomes
surface tension), short-circuiting may also occur when globule
grows very big,
Since the metal is
may also be disturbed due to magnetic pull and cause spatter
transferred due to
(which may be
gravity, this method
reduced by making a deep crater).
can not be used in
out-of-position
welding and can only
be used for flat (down
hand) welding
position.

Globular transfer
occurs when carbon
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
(3) Spray transfer 2.7 to 5.4 kg/h occurs when the
current rises beyond that
of the global transfer. Due to rise in current, magnetic pull on
molten metal
Increases and the metal drop falls due to this pull (not due to
gravity) – thus it
The current
can be used in any position (horizontal, at which
vertical, the
overhead),
the metal is metal transfer changes from
globular
attracted towards the work-piece due to spray
to magnetic pull. is termed
as ‘globular to spray
transition current’. This
transition current is
different for different
electrodes (low for Al),
depends directly on
electrode diameter and
inversely on electrode
extension.

Spray transfer occurs only

when the shielding gas
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
(4) Pulsed spray transfer 0.9 to 2.7 kg/h. Because of
larger heat input and
deeper penetration, spray transfer is not suitable for thin
materials, which are to
be welded in out-of positions. Here, the pulsed spray transfer is
useful. During
(5) Rotating
peak currentspray transfer:
periods 6.3 to
only welding 13.5
takes kg/h.
place. DueAsto the
the extra
welding current is increased beyond what is required for
arrangements,
spray
the transfer,
machine rotation
cost goes up spray transfer
in this results. In this, the
process.
end of wire melts and rotates in a spiral or helical pattern,
extending the weld pool to a larger area (poor penetration
and large metal deposit). The ‘rotating spray transition
current’ increases directly with the electrode diameter and
decrease with the electrode extension.
E-dia, SCT, machine
The SCT, settings
ST, V ST, A for
used SCT, SCT,process
GMAW ST, V ST, A
mm V A M- M- V A Al Al
M- M- LAS LAS Al Al
LAS LAS
0.8 15-21 70- 24-28 150- 15-18 45- 22-28 90-
130 265 120 150
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Shielding gases
The gases used in GMAW are: (1) Ar, (2) He, (3) N2, (4) O2, (5)
CO2 and mixtures of them. Each of these have their effect on the
formation of the bead and penetration.
(1)Ar: It reduces the spatter, concentrates the arc, gives deep
penetration weld, ionizes easily requiring small arc voltage, has
lower thermal conductivity (conducts heat slowly from the arc to
the weld zone – hence, good for thin sheets), also good for out-of
position welding (due to lower V employed). A
large percentage of Ar is essential if spray transfer of metal is
desired.
(2)He: It is the most expensive, has better thermal
conductivity (useful for thicker sheets and for
Cu and Al having high thermal conductivity),
filler metal deposition rate is higher (due to
higher current carrying capacity)
(1)CO2: The arc is unstable (very short arc is to be
used to reduce spatter), it is least inexpensive,
only about 7.5% decomposes to CO and O2 under
the arc and deoxidizers such as Al and Si are used,
it is heavy (covers the weld zone well), metal transfer is
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Shielding gases cont.
The mixtures (Ar + He), (Ar + CO2), (Ar + O2) are used in
special cases.
Shielding gases
Metals thatgas
Shielding can beMetals
used for different materials
Shielding gas in
Aluminum
welding
Ar, (Ar+50%He),
by GMAW
L-alloy-S (Ar+2%CO ), (Ar+5%CO ),
2 2
He (Ar+2%O2), (Ar+5%O2)
Magnesium Ar, (Ar+75%He) H-alloy-S (Ar+25%CO2)
Cu Ar, (Ar+75%He) SS (Ar+1%O2),
(deoxidized) (He+7.5%Ar+2.5%O2),
C-steel CO2, (Ar+2%CO2) Nickel Ar, (Ar+75%He)
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Electrodes
The electrode wire comes generally in the form of coils, in
various compositions depending on the base metal composition,
in sizes of 0.5 to 3.2 mm (very small sizes are costly).
The electrodes to be used for steels, generally have
deoxidizers (help in the reduction of oxidation of the weld metal as
well as the porosity) added to it; therefore, those are costly.
Electrode wires are produced by wire drawing where lubrication
is a must. Any lubricant left affects welding like forming
unstable arc and porosity of the weld. Therefore, it should be
properly cleaned. The electrode wire diameter should also be
uniform, otherwise, the arc is likely to wander.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Welding Technique
The variables that affect the weld quality are: (a) the electrode
stick-out (extension), (b) the travel speed, (c) the welding
method, (d) electrode diameter, (e) welding machine
parameters (V and A).
A minimum electrode stick-out
of the order of 10 mm to be
maintained to safeguard the
contact tube from burning.
Larger electrode extension
decreases the melting rates (MR)
and increase the penetration.
MR = aI + bLI2
Here, MR: melting rate, kg/h
I: the welding current, A
L: the electrode extension, mm
a, b:constants:(1.6mm wire, DCEP)
a: Al: 5.4x10-3 MS: 8.6x10-3
b: Al: 4.4x10-6 MS: 2.5x10-5
Effect of stick-out on MR also depends on electrode diameter.
This effect is much less for Al, because of its high electrical
conductivity
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Welding Technique cont.

The electrode travel speed also affects

the bead size and penetration.
Too low a travel speed causes a large
deposition of the filler metal whereas
too high a speed does not give enough
time for melting the base metal, hence,
less deposition.
Further, different electrodes require
different optimum travel speeds which
are normally provided by the
manufacturers.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Welding Technique cont.
The welding method determines the positioning of the gun with
respect to the base metal. The three possible ways of positioning the
welding gun are:
(a)Forehand – the torch points in the direction of electrode
travel slanting backwards from the vertical (heat directed
forward, penetration is the least),
(b)Backhand – the gun is slanted in the direction of travel, the
arc heat is directed on the weld bead giving the best
penetration. This one is preferred because of stable arc and
least spatter.
(c)Perpendicular – In between (a) and (b).
 Welding processes cont.
Flux-cored arc welding
The flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) process is a modification of
the GMAW, where the solid wire electrode is replaced by a
tubular electrode containing a flux at the centre of the
electrode throughout its length.
It was introduced in 1960, finding wide usage because it gives
closely controlled and smooth weld bead.

The equipment used for flux-cored arc welding is similar to that

used for GMAW. Since the electrode is not a solid wire, the
feeding unit should be properly designed so as not to put
excess pressure on the electrode resulting in its flattening.
 Welding processes cont.
Flux-cored arc welding cont.
The advantages of flux-cored arc welding are:
(a)the flux combines with oxides to form slag which covers the
weld bead and protects it during solidification and cooling,
(b)alloying elements and deoxidizers can be added to the
joint,
(c)gives deeper penetration,
(d)many times edge preparation can be avoided.

FCAW is normally used for the welding of structural steels and

alloy steels, though it is not limited to these alone.
 Welding processes cont.
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is used for doing faster welding
jobs; uses larger (12 mm) welding electrodes, very high
currents (4000 A), results in high metal-deposition rates (20
kg/h), very high welding speed (5m/min), can weld plates up to
75 mm in butt joint in a single pass (can also be used for thin,
1mm, plates).

Submerged arc welding

The arc is completely submerged (no spatter), flux on melting

provides shielding, slag gives protection, equipment is
inexpensive and portable, several types of fillers can be used;
can be used only for flat or down-hand positions (because of
 Welding processes cont.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) cont.
The power source can be
either
AC or DC. Both constant-V
and
constant-A type can be
effective.
However, for larger
electrodes,
constant-A is preferred.
Current
rating in SAW is 2 to 3 times
Higher than that of GMAW.
For larger work, two wires
may be
used with two machines, this
may
result in arc blowing (does not
occur
in single wire) due to
interference of
 Welding processes cont.
SAW with metal powder additions
Like in SMAW, addition of metal (iron) powders helps in
increasing the current, thereby increasing the metal
deposition rate (up to 90 kg/h can be realized).

Magnetic attachment Forward feed method

method of powder of powder addition a)
addition a) Principle Principle

b) In use b) In use

Submerged arc strip welding: It is possible to use a

continuous strip (of width: 25 to 125 mm) as an electrode in
place of the solid wire; large components can be welded by
reducing the welding time by 80%.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Principle
Resistance Welding (RW) is also a ‘fusion-welding process’
where both heat and pressure are applied on the joint but no filler
material or flux is added. The heat necessary for the melting of
the joint is obtained by the heating effect of the electrical
resistance of the joint and hence, the name ‘resistance welding’.
Principle: In RW, a low voltage (~ 1 V), very high current (~
15000 A) is passed through the joint for a very short time (~ 0.25
s); this high amperage heats the joint due to the contact
resistance at the joint and melts it. The pressure on the joint
is continuously maintained and the metal fuses together
under this pressure (forge welding).
The heat generated:
H = kI2Rt
Here, H: total heat generated, J,
I: electric current, A,
t: current passing time, s,
R: resistance of the joint, ohms,
k: a constant (the heat losses)
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Principle cont.
The resistance is composed of:
Resistance:
- of the electrodes,
-between the electrode
and work-piece,
-between the two
work-piece plates,
- of the work-piece plates.

Most of the heat should be

generated at (c) for effective
fusion, the rest should
be made as small as possible.
Resistance between the two work-piece plates is affected by (i)
surface finish of
the plates (rougher surface has higher resistance) and (ii)
cleanliness of surface
(oxides should be removed).
The welding force used has the effect of decreasing the
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Set up and
Electrode
The set-up: A rocker arm, or
A step-down transformer a pneumatic or
with different tapings in hydraulic
the primary side cylinder provides the
(for different metals) force.
is needed to give
low A and high V.
Secondary side is
Connected to electrodes
(Cu – low resistance).
Time is to be controlled
properly.
Electrodes: should carry high current and transmit
mechanical force.
Electrode Electrical Strengt Application
Conductivity h
Cu-Cd(0.5- Highest Modera Non-Fe: Al, Mg, and
1.0%) te alloys
Cu-Cr(0.5- Higher High Mild S, Low-alloy S
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Set up and
Electrode cont.
Electrodes: The electrode tips are available in a number of
different
configurations to allow for different welding situations. Since
high heat is
generated the electrodes are cooled through water
circulation.

Similar situation is for two metal

pieces of the same composition but
different thickness, to be joined in a
lap joint.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Advantages and
limitaions
Advantages: Some of the advantages of the resistance welding
are:
1. Most machines are either automatic or semi-automatic; hence,
not very skilled operators are needed. Some one with little
training is enough.
2. It gives high production rate; hence, suitable for mass
production.
3. There are no consumables used except electric power, and
electrode wear is very less; hence, it is economical.
4. Heating of the work-piece is confined to a small part; hence, less
distortion.
5. It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates
of different thickness.
Disadvantages: there are some limitations of resistance
welding process:
1. Resistance welding needs machines, electrodes with
complexities, which makes the process expensive unless it
is used for large scale production.
2. Certain resistance welding processes are limited only to lap
joints limited to sheet metals of thickness less than 3 mm.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes
The various RW processes of interest are: (a) resistance spot
welding,
(b) resistance seam welding, (c) projection welding, (d) upset
welding, and
(e) flash welding.
Resistance spot welding (RSW):
This is the most common RW process where two sheet metals are
joined in a
lap joint forming a nugget at the interface of the two plates.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
Resistance spot welding (RSW) cont.:
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
Resistance spot welding (RSW) cont.:
A RSW schedule is the sequence of events that normally take
place in each
weld: (a) the squeeze time, (b) the weld time, (c) the hold time, (d)
the off time.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
Resistance seam welding (RSEW):
This is a specialized process of spot welding where two disc
electrodes replace
the cylindrical electrodes. The disc electrodes are continuously
rotated so that
the work-piece gets advanced underneath them while the
pressure on the joint
is on. The current is applied in a series of pulses, the time is
so adjusted that the
pulses overlap to for a continuous seam joint.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
Resistance projection welding (RPW):
This is another variation of spot welding where one of the sheets
to be joined is
provided with a number of small projections (~ 0.8 mm and
obtained by means
of embossing) to help localize the current at a pre-determined
spot.

Though circular projections are easier to make and provide

uniform strength, other shapes like elongated circle in one
direction, rounded top, or annular projection round a hole are
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
Resistance projection welding (RPW) cont.:
Advantages:
(1)Possible to weld more than one spot at a given time (number of
projections under the tip of the electrode ~ 6 per cycle); cost of
manufacture is reduced.
(2)The welds may be placed closer than that in RSW.
(3)Because of larger-sized electrodes, their life is longer than
that of RSW.
(4)The larger contact area makes very limited deformation of the
welding tip.
(5)The electrodes can be made to take up the shape of the
assembly fixtures which can help in holding the work-pieces
together in proper alignment during the welding process.
(6)Proper heat balance is easy by making projections in thicker
plates (welding of dissimilar thicknesses) and in the material with
higher electrical conductivity (welding of dissimilar metals).
(7)The uniformity and appearance of the weld is much better
compared to spot welding.
Disadvantages:
(1)A prior operation of embossing is required.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
Resistance projection welding (RPW) cont.:

Joining of wires is a natural welding method. The side of a wire has

a limited contact with wire, therefore welding can be easily carried
out without any pre-operations.
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.

(d) Upset welding

(UW):
The pieces are
brought together
to mate with each
other in a butt
joint.
The two pieces are
held tightly
together and
current is applied,
so that the heat is
generated through
the contact area
between the two
plates.
Because of the
This is useful
joint for joining the two ends of rods or similar pieces.
being under
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
(d) Upset welding (UW) cont.: A variant of UW is electric
resistance welding
(ERW), where a continuous seam weld is obtained for making
pipes starting
from plates of suitable thickness. The plate is first formed
into the shape of a
pipe and then ends will be forming the butt joint to be
welded.

The ends of the pieces to be upset welded must be parallel; any

high spots present on the ends would get melted first before the
two ends and would interfere in the process
 Welding processes cont.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes
(e) Flash welding: It is similar to upset welding except that
the heat is
generated by an arc (not by resistance). The set-up contains two
platens (one
fixed and the other movable) to which the two pieces to be joined
are clamped,
connected to power supply. The two ends are separated to start
the arc to melt
the ends. Then, the pieces are brought together and the power
switched off
while the two ends are fused under force. Most of the metal
melted would flash
out through the joint to form a fin around the joint.
It is a faster operation compared to UW and can
be automatically controlled by a cam arrangement.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding design – heat input
The main function of the heat put into the welding joint is to
melt the (i) base metal and (ii) filler metal (if used). In the case
of arc welding, the heat input, P in watts, is by the direct
conversion of the electrical energy and is given by:
P = VI (V: potential of power source, volts; I: current,
ampere)
The actual amount of heat available for melting the joint, H,
is given by:
H = (P/v) = (VI/v), J/s (v: travel speed of the
electrode, mm/s)
In actual case, part of H is lost and two other parameters, factor
of heat transfer efficiency, f1, and net heat available at the
weld joint, Hnet, are brought into the equation: Hnet
= (f1VI/v)
Usually, the value of f1 is: electric arc: 0.8 → 1,
GTAW: 0.21 to 0.48, SMAW and GMAW: 0.66 to 0.85, SAW:
0.90 to 0.99.
Further, besides being utilized in melting, part of H gets
 Welding processes cont.
Welding design – heat input cont.
Example 1: Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of arc
welding of steel with a potential of 20 V and a current of 200
A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s and the c-s area of the joint is
20 mm2. Heat needed to melt steel: 10 J/mm3 and f1: 0.85.
Solution 1:
net heat supplied: (f1VI) = (0.85x20x200) =
3400 W
volume of base metal melted: 20 x 5 = 100 mm3/s
heat required for melting: 100 x 10 = 1000 J/s
melting efficiency, f2: 1000/3400 = 0.2941
In case of resistance welding, the heat input is given by:
H = I2Rt (R: resistance of the joint,
ohms, t: time of flow of current in sec.)
Example 2: Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thickness are
resistance welded in a lap joint with a current of 10 000 A
for 0.1 second. The effective resistance of the joint can be
taken 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as a
 Welding processes cont.
Welding design – heat input cont.
Example 2: Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thickness are
resistance welded in a lap joint with a current of 10 000 A for
0.1 second. The effective resistance of the joint can be taken
100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as a cylinder of 5
mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. The density of steel is
0.00786 g/mm3 and heat required for melting steel is 10
J/mm3.
Solution 2:
Heat supplied = 10 0002 x 100 x 10-6 x 0.1 =
1000 J
Volume of the joint = [( x 52 x 1.5)/4] = 29.452
mm3
heat required for melting = 29.452 x 10 = 294.52 =
295 J
Heat lost to surroundings = 1000 – 295 = 705 J
which is 705/1000 x 100 = 70.5 %

Example 3: Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thickness are

resistance welded in a projection welding with a current of 30
 Welding processes cont.
Welding design – heat input cont.
Example 3: Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thickness are
resistance welded in a projection welding with a current of 30
000 A for 0.005 second. The effective resistance of the joint
can be taken 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as a
cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. The density of
steel is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat required for melting steel is
10 J/mm3.
Solution 3:
Heat supplied = 30 0002 x 100 x 10-6 x 0.005
= 450 J
Volume of the joint = [( x 52 x 1.5)/4] = 29.452
mm3
heat required for melting = 29.452 x 10 = 294.52 = 295
J
Heat lost to surroundings = 450 – 295 = 155 J
which is 155/450 x 100 = 34.5 %

Comment: In comparison to spot welding, projection welding

with a short cycle time is more efficient, because heat
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW)
In solid state welding (SSW), coalescence of part surfaces is
achieved by:
(a) Pressure alone, (b) Heat and pressure
(c) For some SSW processes, time is also a factor
(d) No filler metal is added
Each SSW process has its own way of creating a bond at the
faying surfaces.
Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are that the
two weld surfaces must be:
(i) Very clean
(ii) In very close physical contact with each other to
permit atomic bonding
Advantages:
(a) If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so metal
around joint retains original properties.
(b) Many SSW processes produce welded joints that
bond the entire contact interface between two parts
rather than at distinct spots or seams
(c) Some SSW processes can be used to bond
dissimilar metals, without concerns about relative melting
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.
In solid state welding (SSW), there are various processes:
(a) forge welding, (b) cold welding, (c) roll
welding,
(d) friction welding, (e) diffusion welding,
(f) explosion welding, (g)
ultrasonic welding.

Forge Welding: This is the oldest of the metal-joining processes

known to mankind and is familiar to blacksmith. In this process,
the ends of the parts to be joined are heated to a
temperature slightly below the solidus temperature and a
pressure is applied [by (i) repeated manual blow, (ii) machine,
or (iii) rotating rolls] so that a fusion joint is obtained.
In forge welding of ferrous alloys, oxide formation is a
problem. Oxides must be removed by adding a flux (borax,
Na2B4O7.7H2O, or fine silica sand) which forms molten slag to
flow out of the joint under pressure. Fine silica is cheaper and
may be sprinkled on low carbon steels. Wrought iron and low-
carbon steels are easily forged, even without flux, as their
oxides would melt in the prevailing conditions and flow out.
The grain size gets elongated because of heating, however,
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.
(b) cold welding (CW): SSW process done by applying high
pressure between clean contacting surfaces at room
temperature. Cleaning usually done by degreasing and wire
brushing immediately before joining. No heat is applied, but
deformation raises work temperature. At least one of the
metals, preferably both, must be very ductile -
Soft aluminum and copper suited to CW
Applications: making electrical connections.
(c) roll welding: SSW process in which pressure sufficient to
cause coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either with or
without external heat.
Variation of either forge welding or cold welding, depending on
whether heating of work-parts is done prior to process:
If no external heat, cold roll welding
If heat is supplied, hot roll welding
Applications:
1: Cladding stainless steel to mild or low
alloy steel for corrosion resistance
2. Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.

(d) Friction welding(FRW): SSW process in which coalescence

is achieved by frictional heat combined with pressure. Pressure
may range from 40 MPa for low-carbon-steel to 450 MPa for
alloy steel. When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
interface surfaces. No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases
normally used. Process yields a narrow ‘heat affected zone’.
Can be used to join dissimilar metals.
Widely used commercial process, amenable to automation
and mass production.
Applications: Shafts and tubular parts.
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm
equipment, petroleum and natural gas.
Limitations:
At least one of the parts must be
rotational, flash must usually be
removed (extra operation), Upsetting
reduces the part lengths (which must
be taken into consideration in product
design.
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.

(1)Rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact to generate friction
heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.

Friction Stir Welding(FSW): SSW process in which a rotating

tool is fed along a joint line between two work-pieces,
generating friction heat and mechanically stirring the metal
to form the weld seam.
Distinguished from FRW because heat is generated by a
separate wear-resistant tool rather than the parts.
Applications: butt joints in large aluminum parts in
aerospace,
Advantages: automotive, and shipbuilding.
Good mechanical
properties of
weld joint.
Avoids toxic fumes,
warping,
and shielding issues.
Little distortion or
shrinkage
Good weld appearance.
Disadvantages: Rotating tool just partially completed
An exit hole is produced before entering workweld seam
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.

Inertia welding: Another variation of SSW process in which

energy required for welding is stored in a flywheel which is
accelerated to the required speed, then it is disengaged from
the drive motor and the axial force is applied on the rotational
part till it comes in contact with the fixed part. Its rpm comes
down, yet heat is generated on the joint which is made under
pressure.
(e) diffusion welding (DFW): Also called ‘diffusion bonding’, is
another variation of SSW process which uses heat and pressure,
usually in a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for
diffusion and coalescence to occur.
Main features:
(i) Temperatures  0.5 Tm
(ii) Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
(iii) Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state
diffusion.
(iv) Can be used to join metal to metal as well as metal
to non-metals.
Limitation:
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.

(f) Explosion welding: SSW process in which rapid coalescence

of two metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a
detonated explosive.
Features: No filler metal used, No external heat applied, No
diffusion occurs - time is too short, Bonding is metallurgical,
combined with mechanical interlocking that results from a
rippled or wavy interface between the metals.

Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals, in particular to

clad one metal on top of a base metal over large areas
 Welding processes cont.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.
(g) ultrasonic welding (USW): Two components are held
together, and oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency
are applied to interface to cause coalescence. Oscillatory motion
breaks down any surface films to allow intimate contact and
strong metallurgical bonding between surfaces. The features
are: (i) Temperature is well below Tm, (ii) No need of filler
metals, fluxes, or shielding gases, (iii) Generally limited to lap
(a) General
joints on soft materials. (b) close‑up
setup of weld area
for a lap joint

Applications: Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and

electronics industry (Eliminates need for soldering), assembly of
aluminum sheet metal panels, welding of tubes to sheets in solar
panels, assembly of small parts in automotive industry.
 Welding processes cont.
Brazing
Brazing is the coalescence of a joint with the help of a filler
metal whose liquidus temperature is above 4500C and is below
the solidus temperature of the base metal; the filler metal is
drawn into the joint by means of capillary action (fluid enters into
tightly fitted surfaces). Welding gives higher joint strength, but
cause (i) metallurgical damage due to phase change and (ii)
oxide formation, which are avoided in brazing.
Advantages:
•Dissimilar metals (SS and CI) which can not be
welded can be joined by brazing. Except Al and
Mg, brazing can join almost all the metals.
•Very thin metals can be joined.
•Easy to join metals with different thickness.
• In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece.
Hence, there is no distortion.
•Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool
holders.
Disadvantages:
•Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding. Color
of filler and base may not match.
•Joint preparation cost is more.
 Welding processes cont.
Brazing cont.
Types of joints: The types of joints in brazing are: (a) Lap joint
– Flat parts, (b) Lap joint – Tubular parts, (c) Butt joint – Flat
parts, (d) Butt joint – Tubular parts, (e) Butt-lap joint – Flat
parts, (f) Butt-lap joint – Tubular parts.

Butt joint is easy and has strength, but the tensile strength
is limited by the contact area in the joint. In lap joint, it is
possible to increase the bonding area. Butt-lap joints may be
used to have advantages of both types.
 Welding processes cont.
Brazing cont.
In brazing, joints are to be clean. Grease and oil must be removed
by suitable solvents. Oxides and scales must be removed by
pickling. Fluxes are added to take care of oxides: borax, boric
acid, chlorides, fluorides, tetra-borates. For ferrous materials:
mixture of borax (75%) and boric acid (25%); for SS, Al-Cu, Be-
Cu alloys: alkaline fluorides; for W-Cu: A typical flux
containing sodium cyanide (harmful – proper ventilation and
care is needed) is used. Fluxes are applied by spraying,
brushing or with the help of a pressurized applicator.

The joint obtained in brazing is by means of the diffusion of

the filler metal into the base material, associated with surface
alloying. Braze welding: same as brazing, except that the
filler metal enters the joint without capillary action.
 Welding processes cont.
Brazing cont.
Depending on the type of base metal to be brazed, a number of
filler metals are available: (a) for ferrous materials: Cu-based
material, (b) for various steels: Cu-alloys with less Zn (high Zn –
70%, makes it brittle), (c) for Al: Al-Si alloy.
Silver brazing makes use of Ag-based alloys, gives high
strength joint (tensile strength up to 900 MPa), originally
used for jewellery, now extensively used for a large range of
materials. However, because of high cost, it is used in case of
special applications requiring high strength and high
temperature service.
 Welding processes cont.
Brazing cont.
Heat sources used for brazing are: (a) molten bath of brazing filler
metal, (b) oxy-acetylene torch, (c) controlled atmosphere
furnace, (d) electrical resistance heating, or (e) induction
heating.
Types of brazing methods:
(i)torch brazing: a reducing flame (oxy-acetylene or propane),
generally a manual operation (depends on operator’s skill),
can be mechanized employing multiple torches,
(ii)dip brazing: the brazing point is prepared and dipped in a
salt/metal bath for quick melting of brazing alloy, on cooling
joint is strengthened,
(iii)induction brazing: high-frequency current induced in the
work by means of the electrical coils.
(iv)electrical resistance brazing:
heating set-up is similar to
electrical resistance welding,
except that brazing requires
less power,
(v) furnace brazing: a furnace with
controlled atmosphere, neutral
or reducing is used, the assemblies
 Welding processes cont.
Soldering
Soldering is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by
means of a filler metal whose liquidus temperature is below
4500C. Soldering is normally used for obtaining a leak-proof joint
or a low-resistance electrical joint. It is similar to brazing, the
filler metal is drawn into the joint also by means of capillary
action, the joint is weaker compared to brazing.
Soldering is used for:
• Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans,
• Electrical Connections,
• Joining thermally sensitive components,
• Joining dissimilar metals,
• Used extensively in electronics industry because of heat sensitive
components
Fluxes:
– Surface preparation and the use of fluxes are most
important,
– Fluxes prevents oxidation and remove slight oxide films
from work piece surfaces.
– Organic fluxes such as zinc chloride and ammonium chloride
are quick acting,
 Welding processes cont.
Soldering cont.
The filler metals used are normally called solders, which are
essentially alloys of lead and tin (have lower liquidus T, the
eutectic alloy of 62% tin + 38% lead has the lowest liquidus T
of 1830C). To improve the mechanical properties and
temperature resistance, solders are added to other alloying
elements such as Zn, Cd and Ag in various proportions.
Composition and melting point of some filter metals used in
% tin % lead %silve % Cd % zinc
soldering Solidus T, Liquidus T,
r 0
C 0
C
25 75 183 267
40 60 183 235
62 38 183 183
96 4 221 221
62 36 2 180 190
91 9 199 199
70 30 199 311
40 60 265 335
10 90 265 399
 Welding processes cont.
Soldering cont.
Types of soldering methods: The most commonly used
soldering methods are:
(i)With soldering iron (flame or electrically heated): a
soldering iron is a copper rod with a thin tip, which can be
used for flattening the soldering material. It can be heated in
a furnace or by an internal electrical resistance (15 W for
electronic applications to 200 W for sheet-metal joining). This
is the most convenient method of soldering though slower
than other methods.
(ii)dip soldering: a large amount of solder is melted in a
closed tank. The parts to be soldered are cleaned, dipped in a
flux, and then dipped into this molten solder pool and lifted
with soldering complete.
(iii)wave soldering: a variant of dip soldering, wherein the
parts to be soldered (electronic circuit board, PCB) are not
dipped into the solder tank, but a wave is generated in the
tank so that the solder comes up and makes the necessary
joint. It is a continuous process with the PCBs moving
continuously over the tank generating wave continuously. It is
used for mass production of electronic equipments.
 Welding processes cont.
Soldering cont.
 Welding processes cont.
Residual stresses developed during welding
Rapid heating and cooling results in thermal stresses detrimental to joint
strength.
Prevention: - Edge Preparation/Alignment – beveled edges and space
between components to allow movement
– Control of heat input – skip or intermittent weld technique
– Preheating – reduces expansion/contraction forces (alloys) and removes
moisture from the surface
– Peening – help metal stretch as it cools by hitting with a hammer.
– Heat Treatment – “soak” the metal at a high temperature to relieve
stresses
– Jigs and Fixtures – prevent distortion by holding metal fixed
– Number of Passes – the fewer the better.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects
In view of the severe thermal regime through which the welding
process proceeds, the weldments are likely to be affected. Unless
proper care is taken defects are inevitable. The welding defects
may be termed as: (a) distortions and (b) other defects.
Distortions: One of the major problem faced by the
weldments is distortion, which is caused mainly because of
the shrinkages taking place in weldments (depends on
geometry and type of weld). There are three types of
distortions:
(1)Transverse shrinkage occurring perpendicular to the weld
line,
(2) Longitudinal shrinkage occurring parallel to the weld line
which is very small of the order of about 0.1% of the weld
length and hence can be neglected,
(3) Angular change as a rotation about the weld line.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.

Variation in weld distortion

 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
Transverse shrinkage in butt joints: The transverse shrinkage
in a butt joint in a single pass weld is a result of contraction of the
base metal which was expanded during welding, and can be
estimated as:
s = 5.08x(Aw/t) + 1.27xd
s: transverse shrinkage, mm; t: plate thickness, mm; d: root opening,
mm; Aw: cross-sectional area of weld, mm2.
During multi-pass welding, the total shrinkage (st) is the sum
total of that in each pass (major contribution comes from the
first pass – s1); and is proportional to the logarithm of the total
weight (w) of weld metal deposited:
st = s1 + b x (logw – logw1) (1: first pass, b: a
constant)
Based on this relationship, transverse
Process shrinkage can be
Effect
decreased
variableby:
(i)Root
Decreasing
opening the weight of theincreases
Shrinkage weld metal, w; and/or
with root (ii)
opening
increasing w1. The other factors which affect the transverse
Joint design Single V produces more shrinkage compared to
shrinkage are given in the table: double V
Variables affecting the transverse shrinkage in butt joint
Electrode Larger sized electrodes reduce shrinkage
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
Angular change in butt joints: Angular change in butt joints occurs
due to the non-uniform transverse shrinkage in the thickness
direction.

Angular distortion of fillet welds:

Fillet welds in a structure are affected
by the way the structure is designed
and the type of restraint provided.
When restraint is provided wavy
distortion appears.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
Control of distortions: The ways to minimize distortions are:
(a)good design with minimum number of joints,
(b)estimate the likely amount of distortion and pre-set the
members to compensate the distortion,
(c)most preferred method in industry is by providing restraint
(putting clamps, fixtures, tack welds),
(d)pre-heating the members of the weldments such that the
heat of welding would be balanced (the distortion is reduced
by 50% by pre-heating the bottom plate of a T-joint).
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are: (a) undercut, (b)
incomplete fusion, (c) porosity, (d) slag inclusions, (e) hot
cracking, (f) cold cracking, (g) lamellar tearing.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are: (a) undercut,
This appears like a small notch in the weld interface; due to (i)
improper welding technique, or, (ii) excessive welding
current, or (iii) incorrect manipulation of electrode while
depositing the bead, particularly, in horizontal and vertical
welding.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.):
(b) Incomplete fusion: This will be seen as a discontinuity in
the weld zone; due to (i) improper penetration of the joint, or,
(ii) wrong design of the joint, or (iii) incorrect welding
technique (choosing lower or higher current, improper
cleaning of the surface).
Detection:
This type of defect tends to be sub surface and is therefore
detectable only by ultra-sonics or X-ray methods,
Lack of side wall fusion which penetrates the surface may be
detected using magnetic particle, dye or fluorescent
penetrant inspection.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.):
(c) Porosity: May be in form of cavities, worm holes, porosity.
The reasons: entrapped gases such as (i) hydrogen, - main
cause, source: electrode coating, cellulose, dissociation of
moisture etc. (ii) oxygen, -source: as oxide from base metal
and filler metal (iii) nitrogen – source: atmospheric air, (Ar,
He, CO2 may be present, but those are not soluble). Porosity
reduces the strength.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (d) slag
inclusions:
Slag is formed by the reaction with the fluxes and is lighter; hence,
expected to float at the top of the weld pool to be chipped off
after solidification. However, the stirring caused by high
intensity arc force the slag to go into the weld pool and stay
as inclusion. Also in multi-pass welding, improper cleaning
after the earlier pass allows slag inclusion.
Some factors responsible for slag inclusion are:
(a)high viscosity of slag pool,
(b)rapid solidification,
(c)insufficient welding heat,
(d)improper manipulation of the electrode,
(e)undercut on previous pass.
Slag inclusion like porosity, weakens the metal by providing
discontinuities.
Slag inclusion is normally detected by radiography.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (d) slag
inclusions (cont.):
Linear Slag Inclusions
• Cause:
Incomplete removal of slag in
multi
-pass welds often associated with
the
presence of undercut or irregular
surfaces in underlying passes
Isolated Slag Inclusions
• Causes:
• Normally by the presence of
mill scale and/or rust on
prepared surfaces, or
electrodes with cracked or
damaged coverings.
• Can also arise from isolated
undercut in underlying passes
of multi-pass welds
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (e) hot cracking:
This generally occurs at high temperature and the size can be
very small to visible. The crack is mostly inter-granular, form
during the root pass when the base metal is very large
compared to the weld metal deposited.
This defect can be detected by: Surface: Visual examination,
magnetic particle, dye or fluorescent penetrant inspection,
Internal: Ultrasonic flaw detection, radiography.
Can be prevented by: (i) pre-heating the base metal, (ii)
increasing the cross-sectional area of the root bead, (iii)
changing the contour of the weld bead, (iv) changing
composition of the weld bead.

A longitudinal hot crack on Solidification A longitudinal hot

the surface of a weld metal Cracking crack in the cross
by SMAW section (SAW)
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (e) hot cracking
(cont.):
Reheat Cracking:
• Occurs in creep resisting and some
thick section structural low alloy
steels during post weld heat
treatment
• Causes:
– Poor creep ductility in HAZ
coupled with thermal stress
– Accentuated by severe notches
such as preexisting cracks, or
tears at weld toes, or unfused
root of partial penetration weld
– Heat treatment may need to
include low temperature soaking
– Grinding or peening weld toes
after welding can be beneficial
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (f) cold cracking:
This generally occurs at room temperature after the weld is
completely cooled. Cold cracks can occur in both butt welds and
fillet welds; mostly seen in the heat-affected-zone (HAZ). The
causes are: (i) excessive restraint of the joint which induces high
residual stresses, (ii) martensitic transformations (metal
becomes hard due), (iii) high arc energy, (iv) S, P, Nb pick-up
from base metal.

Typical cold cracks in fillet welds

 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (f) cold cracking
(cont.):
This defect can be detected by: Surface: Visual examination,
magnetic particle, dye or fluorescent penetrant inspection,
Internal: Ultrasonic flaw detection, radiography.
Can be prevented by: (i) pre- and post- heating of the weldment
(helps in reducing the cooling rate), (ii) stress-relieving the
weldment immediately (relieves residual stress)

Crack along the coarse

Cold cracking in the
grain structure in the
weld
HAZ
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (g) lamellar
tearing: This is generally seen at the edge of the heat affected
zone (HAZ), It appears as a long and continuous visual
separation line between the base metal and the HAZ. The causes
are: (i) presence of the elongated inclusions such as Mn, Fe and S
in the base metal, (ii) weld configuration which gives rise to high
residual tensile stresses in the transverse region.
This defect can be detected by: Surface: Visual examination,
magnetic particle, dye or fluorescent penetrant inspection,
Internal: Ultrasonic flaw detection, radiography.
Can be prevented by: (i) prior
buttering of surface beneficial for
susceptible plate.
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
Crater Pipes: Results from
shrinkage at the end crater of a
weld run.
Causes: Incorrect manipulative
technique or current decay to
allow for crater shrinkage.
Miscellaneous Faults:
Arc Strikes
Cause:
Accidental contact of an
electrode
or welding torch with a
plate
surface remote from the
weld.

Usually result in small

hard spots
 Welding processes cont.
Welding defects cont.
Miscellaneous Faults (cont.):
Spatter
Cause:
Incorrect welding conditions
and/or contaminated
consumables or preparations,
giving rise to explosions
within the arc and weld pool.
Globules of molten metal are
thrown out, and adhere to the
parent metal remote from the
weld.

Copper Pick-Up
Cause:
Melting of copper contact tube
in MIG welding due to
incorrect welding conditions.
 Welding processes cont.
Some weld symbols – butt joints
 Welding processes cont.
Some weld symbols – Fillet joints

Some weld symbols – corner joints