Motivation

What is Motivation; Early

Theories of Motivation;
Contemporary Theories of
Motivation; Current issues in
Motivation..
A general term applying the entire class of drives, desires,
needs, wishes, and similar forces that induced or instigate
to act in a desired manner. Motivation is the set of forces
that cause people to behave in certain ways.

Motivation refers to the process by which a person’s efforts

are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a
goal. This definition has three key elements: (1) energy, (2)
direction, and (3) persistence.

Performance=Ability X Motivation.
 Characteristics/nature of
motivation
 Motivation can be expressed differently;
 Motivation changes;
 Individual are not aware of motivation;
 Motivation is highly situational;
 Individual differs in motivation; and
 It is internal feeling.
 Sources of
Motivation
Personal
Personal Nature
Natureof
ofthe
theJob
Job
Characteristics
Characteristics

Individual
Individual
Motivation
Motivation

Nature
Natureof
ofthe
theOrganization
Organization
 Core Phases of Motivation Process

1. Employee 2. Employee 3. Employee

identifies searches for selects goal-
ways to satisfy directed
needs. these needs. behaviors.

6. Employee 5. Employee
reassesses receives either 4. Employee
rewards or
need punishments. performs.
deficiencies.
 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

 Intrinsically
Motivated Behavior: Behavior that is
performed for its own sake.

 ExtrinsicallyMotivated Behavior: Behavior that is

performed to acquire material or social rewards or
to avoid punishment.
 Douglas McGregor Model: Theory X and
Theory Y
Theory X Theory Y
 People are lazy.  People are energetic.

 People lack ambition and  People are ambitious and

dislike responsibility. seek responsibility.
 People are self-centered.  People can be selfless.

 People resist change.  People want to contribute

to business growth and
 People are gullible and not
change.
very bright.  People are intelligent.
 Abraham Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory

Maslow hierarchy suggest that human needs can be

classified into five categories and these can arranged
in a hierarchy of importance.
 Abraham Maslow Need: Hierarchy Theory

Needs Description Examples

Highest-
Self-
Self- Realize
Realizeone’s
one’s Use
Useabilities
abilities
level needs
actualization
actualization full
fullpotential
potential to
tothe
thefullest
fullest

Feel
Feelgood
good Promotions
Promotions
Esteem
Esteem about
aboutoneself
oneself and
andrecognition
recognition

Social
Social Interpersonal
Interpersonal
Belongingness
Belongingness interaction,
interaction,love
love relations,
relations,parties
parties

Job
Jobsecurity,
security,
Safety
Safety Security,
Security,stability
stability health
healthinsurance
insurance

Lowest-level Food,
Food,water,
water, Basic
Basicpay
paylevel
level
Physiological
Physiological
needs shelter
shelter to buy items
to buy items

Lower-level needs must be satisfied

before higher-level needs are
addressed.
 Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory

 Existence Needs: Basic needs for human survival

such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter,
and a secure and safe environment.
 Relatedness Needs: The needs to have good
interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and
feelings, and to have open two-way communication.
 Growth Needs: The needs for self-development
and creative and productive work.
 Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Needs Description Examples

Highest-
level needs
Self-development,
Self-development, Continually
Continually
Growth
Growth creative
creativework
work improve
improveskills
skills

Interpersonal
Interpersonal Good
Goodrelations,
relations,
Relatedness
Relatedness relations,
relations, feelings accuratefeedback
feelings accurate feedback

Food,
Food,water,
water, Adequate
Adequatepay
pay
Lowest- Existence
Existence clothing, and shelter for necessities
clothing, and shelter for necessities
level needs

After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
 Federick Herzberg Two Factor Theory
The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
 People’ssatisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two
independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors.
 Two distinct continuums:
Motivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that
ranges from satisfaction to no satisfaction.
Hygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum
that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.
Motivation is a two-step process:
 Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking motivation.
 Giving employees the opportunity to experience motivational factors through job enrichment.
 Federick Herzberg Two Factor Theory
Herzberg asserted that intrinsic factors are
Motivation Factors related to job satisfaction whereas extrinsic
• Achievement factors are associated with dissatisfaction. So,
he called company policy, supervision,
• Recognition
interpersonal relations, working conditions, and
• The work itself
salary hygiene factors. When these factors are
• Responsibility
adequate, people will not be dissatisfied;
• Advancement however, they will not be satisfied either. He
and growth believed that achievement, recognition, the
work itself, growth, and responsibility are
Satisfaction motivational because people find them
No satisfaction
intrinsically rewarding.
Hygiene Factors
• Supervisors
• Working conditions
• Interpersonal relations
• Pay and security
• Company policies and
administration

Dissatisfaction No dissatisfaction
 David C. McClelland’s Needs Theory of
Motivation
Need for
Achievement
(nAch)
The desire to accomplish a goal or task more
effectively than in the past.
The Theory
of Needs
Need for
Affiliation
(nAff)
The desire for human companionship and
acceptance.
David
McClelland
Need for
Power
(nPow)
The desire to be influential in a group and to control
one’s environment.
 Victor H. Broom’s Expectancy Theory

A perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain

level of performance. This theory suggests that motivation depends
on two things-how much we want something and how likely we
think we are to get it.

Individual Individual Organizationa Personal

Effort Performance l Rewards Goals

Effort- Performance- Rewards-

Performance Reward Personal
Issue Issue Goals Issue
 Victor H. Broom’s Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based
on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables (A,
B, and C) or relationships
 Equity Theory
Motivation is influenced by an individual’s subjective judgment about the fairness of
he reward he or she gets, relative to the inputs, compared with the rewards of
others.

Condition Person Referent Example

Worker
Workercontributes
contributes
Outcomes = Outcomes
Outcomes = Outcomes more
more inputsbut
inputs but
Equity
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs gets
getsmore
moreoutputs
outputs
than referent
than referent
Worker
Workercontributes
contributes
Underpayment Outcomes < Outcomes
Underpayment Outcomes < Outcomes more
more inputsbut
inputs but
Equity
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs gets the same outputs
Inputs gets the same outputs
as
asreferent
referent
Worker
Workercontributes
contributes
Overpayment
Overpayment Outcomes > Outcomes
Outcomes > Outcomes same
same inputsbut
inputs but
Equity
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs gets more outputs
gets more outputs
than
thanreferent
referent
 Equity Theory

Equity theory proposes

that employees compare
what they get from a job
(outcomes) in relation to
what they put into it
(inputs), and then they
compare their inputs-
outcomes ratio with the
inputs-outcomes ratios
of relevant others
 Goal Setting Theory of
Motivation
Goal
What a person is trying to accomplish.
Goal Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead
to higher performance.

“SMART” Goals
Characteristics of Motivating Goals Specific
Specific and not vague in providing direction Measurable
Difficult but not impossible to attain Attainable
Accepted and committed to by workers Results oriented
Feedback on goal attainment is important. Time bound

Goals point out what is important to the firm.

Workers should be encouraged to develop action plans
to attain goals.
 Goal Setting Theory of Motivation
This theory suggests that managers and subordinates should set goals for
the individual on a regular basis which is moderately difficult and very
specific.

Goal Goal Organizational Intrinsic

Difficulty Acceptance Support Rewards

Goal-directed
Performance Satisfaction
Acceptance

Goal Goal Individual Extrinsic

Specificity Commitment abilities & traits Rewards
 Reinforcement / Behavior Modification Theory

Approach to motivation that explains the role of rewards as they cause behavior to
change or remain the same over time. Specifically, reinforcement theory argues that
behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas
behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Punishment
Punishment
When negative consequences are attached
directly to undesirable behavior

Positive
Positive Reinforcement
Reinforcement

When rewards are tied directly to performance

 Reinforcement / Behavior Modification
Theory
Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations

Positive reinforcement - Strengthens behavior with

rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is
performed.
Avoidance - Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant
consequences that would result if the behavior is not
performed.
Punishment - Weakens undesired behavior by using
negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the
behavior is performed.
Extinction - Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring
 Current Issues in Motivation
1 Managing cross-cultural challenges
2 Motivating unique groups of workers
Diverse workforce
Professionals
Contingent workers
3. Designing appropriate rewards programs
Open book management (organization’s financial statements are shared with all
employees)
Employee recognition program (encourage specific behaviors by formally
appreciating specific employee contributions)
Pay for performance (vary with some measure of individual or organizational
performance)
Designing Motivating
Jobs
Job Enlargement (Horizontal Expansion)
An early effort at overcoming the drawbacks of job specialization
involved horizontally expanding a job through increasing job scope—
the number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with
which these tasks are repeated.
Job enrichment (vertical
expansion) increases job depth,
which is the degree of control
employees have over their works.
In other words, employees are
empowered to assume some of
the tasks typically done by
their managers. Thus, an
enriched job allows workers to do
an entire activity with increased
freedom, independence, and
Designing Motivating
Jobs
Job Characteristics Model

Although job
enrichment may
improve the quality
of work, employee
motivation, and
satisfaction, research
evidence has been
inconclusive as to its
usefulness.
Integrating
Contemporary
Theories of
Motivation
Its basic foundation is the simplified
expectancy model. The individual effort
box has an arrow leading into it. This arrow
flows from the individual’s goals.
Consistent with goal-setting theory, this
goals-effort loop is meant to illustrate that
goals direct behavior.

Expectancy theory predicts that an

employee will exert a high level of effort if
he or she perceives a strong relationship
between effort and performance,
performance and rewards, and rewards
and satisfaction of personal goals.

A closer look at the model also shows that

it considers the achievement-need,
reinforcement, equity, and JCM theories.
 Money as a motivator

Money can never be overlooked as a motivator. It is often more than

monetary value; it can also mean status or power, or other things.

 Expectancy: pay (Money) is an instrumentality (and outcome),

must be high for motivation to be high.
 Need Theory: pay (Money) is used to satisfy many needs.
 Equity Theory: pay (Money) is given in relation to inputs.
 Goal Setting Theory: pay (Money) is linked to attainment of goals.
 LearningTheory: outcomes (pay-Money), is distributed upon
performance of functional behaviors.
 Is money a motivator?
All three theories studied show that money is a biological need; it is something
every person needs to sustain modern life. It is at the base of Maslow’s pyramid; it
is in McGregor’s Theory X which focuses around Maslow’s base of the pyramid and
it is a hygiene factor in Herzberg’s theory.
All of these theories show that money is a short-term motivator. If you do not
have money, which causes you to go hungry, you will be motivated to take any job
to fill that basic need. Once that need is met it no longer motivates you to grow in
your career, it doesn’t drive you to go above and beyond the bar set for your
current position.
As a long-term motivator money loses its power over time and can not be
considered one. Because once the basic needs of an individual are met, they move
to other factors to motivate themselves: respect, relationships, advancement,
satisfaction.
I agree with all three of our theorists that money is a necessity and if it is not
present people may become dissatisfied with their jobs, but at the same time it
will not motivate the individual to take the next steps in their current career. You
can not just pay them more in order to get the most out of them. You need to
bring other factors to the workplace in order to motivate your employees to give