Raymond A.
Serway
John W. Jewett
Chapter 3
Motion in Two Dimensions
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• The position of an
object is described
by its position vector
• The displacement
of the object is the
difference between
its final and initial
positions:
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• The average velocity is
the ratio of the
displacement to the
time interval for the
displacement:
• The direction of the
average velocity is the
direction of the
displacement vector
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• The average velocity between points is
independent of the path taken
• This is because it is dependent on the
displacement, which is also independent of the
path
• If a particle starts its motion at some point and
returns to this point via any path, its average
velocity is zero for this trip since its displacement
is zero
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• The instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average
velocity as ∆t approaches zero:
• The direction of the instantaneous velocity vector at
any point in a particle’s path is along a line tangent
to the path at that point and in the direction of
motion
• The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector is the
speed
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• The average acceleration of a particle is the
ratio of the change in the instantaneous
velocity to the time interval:
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• As a particle moves, v can be found in
different ways, according to the rules of
vector addition
• The average acceleration is a vector quantity
directed along v
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of
the average acceleration as v/t approaches
zero:
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and
Acceleration Vectors
• Various changes in a particle’s motion may
produce an acceleration
• The magnitude of the velocity vector may change
• The direction of the velocity vector may change
• Even if the magnitude remains constant
• Both may change simultaneously
3.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with
Constant Acceleration
• When the two-dimensional motion has a
constant acceleration, a series of equations
can be developed that describe the motion
• These equations will be similar to those of one-
dimensional kinematics
• Motion in two dimensions can be modeled as
two independent motions in the x and y
directions
• Any influence in the y direction does not affect the
motion in the x direction, and vise versa
3.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with
Constant Acceleration
• Position vector:
• Velocity:
• Since acceleration is constant, we can also find
an expression for the velocity as a function of
time:
• The position vector as a function of time can be
written as
3.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with
Constant Acceleration
• The velocity and position vectors can be
represented by components:
Example 3.1 Motion in a Plane
A particle moves in the xy plane, starting from
the origin at t = 0 with an initial velocity having
an x component of 20 m/s and a y component
of 15 m/s. The particle experiences an
acceleration in the x direction, given by
ax = 4.0 m/s2.
Example 3.1 Motion in a Plane
(A) Determine the total velocity vector at any
time.
Set vxi = 20 m/s; vyi = 15 m/s; ax = 4.0 m/s2; ay = 0
• Find the velocity vector:
• Substitute numerical values:
Example 3.1 Motion in a Plane
(B) Calculate the velocity and speed of the
particle at t = 5.0 s and the angle the velocity
vector makes with the x axis.
• Evaluate the result from Equation (1) at t = 5.0 s:
• Determine that angle:
• Evaluate the speed:
Example 3.1 Motion in a Plane
(C) Determine the x and y coordinates of the
particle at any time t and its position vector at
this time.
• Use xi = yi = 0 at t = 0:
• Express the position vector of the particle at any
time t:
3.3 Projectile Motion
• An object may move in both the x and y
directions simultaneously
• The form of two-dimensional motion we will deal
with is called projectile motion
• Assumptions:
(1) the free-fall acceleration g is constant over
the range of motion and directed downward
(2) the effect of air resistance is negligible
3.3 Projectile Motion
• With these assumptions, an object in
projectile motion will follow a parabolic path
• This path is called the trajectory
• This is the simplification model that will be
used throughout this chapter
3.3 Projectile Motion
• Reference frame chosen:
• y is vertical with upward positive
• Acceleration components:
ay = g and ax = 0
• Initial velocity components:
vxi = vi cos and vyi = vi sin
3.3 Projectile Motion
• The velocity components and position
coordinates for the projectile at any time t are
• The expression for the trajectory of a projectile is
(valid for angles in the range 0 < i < /2)
3.3 Projectile Motion
• The vector expression for the position of a
projectile as a function of time is
• The final position is the vector sum of the initial
position, the position resulting from the initial
velocity, and the position resulting from the
acceleration
3.3 Projectile Motion
3.3 Projectile Motion
• The maximum height, h, is
given by
• The horizontal range,
R, is given by
3.3 Projectile Motion
• The maximum range occurs at i = 45o
• Complementary angles will produce the same
range
• The maximum height will be different for the two
angles
• The times of the flight will be different for the two
angles
Problem Solving Strategy: Projectile
Motion
1. Conceptualize - Think about what is going
on physically in the problem.
• Establish the mental representation by imagining
the projectile moving along its trajectory.
2. Categorize - Confirm that the problem
involves a particle in free-fall and that air
resistance is neglected.
• Select a coordinate system with x in the
horizontal direction and y in the vertical direction.
Problem Solving Strategy: Projectile
Motion
3. Analyze - If the initial velocity vector is given,
resolve it into x and y components.
• Treat the horizontal motion and the vertical
motion independently.
• Analyze the horizontal motion of the projectile
with the particle under constant velocity model.
• Analyze the vertical motion of the projectile with
the particle under constant acceleration model.
Problem Solving Strategy: Projectile
Motion
4. Finalize - Once you have determined your
result, check to see if your answers are
consistent with the mental and pictorial
representations and that your results are
realistic.
Example 3.2 That’s Quite an Arm!
A stone is thrown
from the top of a
building upward at an
angle of 30.0 to the
horizontal with an
initial speed of 20.0
m/s. The height from
which the stone is
thrown is 45.0 m
above the ground.
Example 3.2 That’s Quite an Arm!
(A) How long does it take the stone to reach the
ground?
• We have:
xi = yi = 0; yf = 45.0 m; ay = g; vi = 20 m/s
• Find the initial x and y components of the stone’s
velocity:
• Express the vertical position of the stone:
Example 3.2 That’s Quite an Arm!
• Substitute numerical values:
• Solve the quadratic equation for t:
Example 3.2 That’s Quite an Arm!
(B) What is the speed of the stone just before it
strikes the ground?
• Find the y component of the velocity just before it
strikes the ground:
• Substitute numerical values, using t = 4.22 s:
• Find the speed of the stone:
Example 3.3 The End of the Ski Jump
A ski jumper leaves the ski track moving in the
horizontal direction with a speed of 25.0 m/s.
The landing incline below her falls off with a
slope of 35.0. Where does she land on the
incline?
Example 3.3 The End of the Ski Jump
• Express the coordinates of the jumper as a
function of time:
• Substitute the values of xf and yf at the landing
point:
• Solve Equation (3) for t and substitute the result
into equation (4):
Example 3.3 The End of the Ski Jump
• Solve for d:
• Evaluate the x and y coordinates of the point at
which the skier lands:
Example 3.4 Javelin Throwing at the
Olympics
An athlete throws a javelin a
distance of 80.0 m at the
Olympics held at the equator,
where g = 9.78 m/s2. Four years
later the Olympics are held at the
North Pole, where g = 9.83 m/s2.
Assuming that the thrower
provides the javelin with exactly
the same initial velocity as she did
at the equator, how far does the
javelin travel at the North Pole?
Example 3.4 Javelin Throwing at the
Olympics
• Express the range of the particle at each of the
two locations:
• Divide the first equation by the second to
establish a ratio between the ratio of the ranges
and the ratio of the free-fall accelerations:
Example 3.4 Javelin Throwing at the
Olympics
• Solve the equation for the range at the North Pole
and substitute values:
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion
• Uniform circular motion occurs when an object
moves in a circular path with a constant speed
• An acceleration exists since the direction of the
motion is changing
• This change in velocity is related to an acceleration
• The velocity vector is always tangent to the path of
the object
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion
• The change in the velocity vector is due to
the change in direction
• The analysis model used for this type of
problem is called the particle in uniform circular
motion model
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion
• The acceleration is always perpendicular to
the path of the motion
• The acceleration always points toward the
center of the circle of motion
• This acceleration is called the centripetal
acceleration
• Centripetal means center-seeking
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion
• The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration
vector is given by
• The direction of the centripetal acceleration
vector is always changing, to stay directed toward
the center of the circle of motion
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion
• The period, T, is the time interval required for
one complete revolution
• The speed of the particle would be the
circumference of the circle of motion divided by
the period
• Therefore, the period is
Example 3.5 The Centripetal
Acceleration of the Earth
What is the centripetal acceleration of the Earth
as it moves in its orbit around the Sun?
• The period of the Earth’s orbit is 1 year, and its
orbital radius is 1.496×1011 m
• Substitute numerical values:
3.5 Tangential and Radial
Acceleration
• Consider a particle moving to the right along a
curved path where the velocity changes both
in direction and in magnitude
• In this case, there would be a tangential
acceleration
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion
• The total acceleration is:
• The tangential acceleration causes a change in
speed of the particle:
• The radial acceleration comes from a change in
the direction of the velocity vector:
3.6 Relative Velocity and Relative
Acceleration
• Consider the two observers A and B along
the number line.
• observer A is located at the origin
• observer B is at the position xA = 5
• We denote the position variable as xA because
observer A is at the origin of this axis
• Both observers measure the position of point P,
which is located at xA = +5
3.6 Relative Velocity and Relative
Acceleration
• Suppose observer B decides that he is
located at the origin of an xB axis
• The two observers disagree on the value of
the position of point P
• Observer A claims
point P is located at a
position with a value
of –5
• Observer B claims it is
located at a position with
a value of +10
3.6 Relative Velocity and Relative
Acceleration
• Both observers are correct, even though they
make different measurements
• Their measurements differ because they are
making the measurement from different frames of
reference
3.6 Relative Velocity and Relative
Acceleration
• Consider two observers
watching a man walking on a
moving beltway at an airport
• The woman standing on the
moving beltway sees the man
moving at a normal walking
speed
• The woman observing from the
stationary floor sees the man
moving with a higher speed
because the beltway speed
combines with his walking speed
3.6 Relative Velocity and Relative
Acceleration
• Both observers look at the same man and
arrive at different values for his speed
• Both are correct
• the difference in their measurements results from
the relative velocity of their frames of reference
3.6 Relative Velocity and Relative
Acceleration
• Note in the diagram that
• Differentiating, we get
• Here, u is used for the particle velocity, since v is
used for the relative velocity of the two frames
• These equations are called Galilean
transformation equations
3.6 Relative Velocity and Relative
Acceleration
• Even though observers in two frames
measure different velocities, they measure
the same acceleration when relative velocity
between the two frames is constant:
Example 3.6 A Boat Crossing a River
A boat crossing a wide river
moves with a speed of 10.0
km/h relative to the water. The
water in the river has a uniform
speed of 5.00 km/h due east
relative to the Earth.
(A) If the boat heads due north,
determine the velocity of the
boat relative to an observer
standing on either bank.
Example 3.6 A Boat Crossing a River
Example 3.6 A Boat Crossing a River
• Find the speed using the Pythagorean
theorem:
• Find the direction:
Example 3.6 A Boat Crossing a River
(B) If the boat travels
with the same speed of
10.0 km/h relative to the
river and is to travel due
north, what should its
heading be?
Example 3.6 A Boat Crossing a River
• Use the Pythagorean theorem:
• Find the direction:
3.7 Context Connection: Lateral
Acceleration of Automobiles
• An automobile does not travel in a
straight line
• It follows a two-dimensional path on a flat
Earth surface and a three-dimensional path
if there are hills and valleys
3.7 Context Connection: Lateral
Acceleration of Automobiles
• Let us restrict our thinking at this point
to an automobile traveling in two
dimensions on a flat roadway
• During a turn, the automobile can be
modeled as following an arc of a circular
path at each point in its motion
• Consequently, the automobile will have a
centripetal acceleration
3.7 Context Connection: Lateral
Acceleration of Automobiles
• A desired characteristic of automobiles
is that they can negotiate a curve
without rolling over
• This characteristic depends on the
centripetal acceleration
• If there is too much centripetal
acceleration, the car will “fall over” and
will go into a sideways roll
3.7 Context Connection: Lateral
Acceleration of Automobiles
• The maximum possible centripetal
acceleration that a car can exhibit
without rolling over in a turn is called
lateral acceleration
• Two contributions to the lateral
acceleration of a car are the height of the
center of mass of the car above the ground
and the side-to-side distance between the
wheels