BIOL 103
Module 4
Cellular Respiration
B. Cameron
1
Recall: All Metabolic Reactions
Require Energy
• Chemical reactions constantly take place in the cell
• Catabolic AND anabolic reactions BOTH require
activation energy
• Enzymes can reduce the amount of energy needed
• Some STILL need more energy
• ATP is a molecule that can store and release energy
needed for countless chemical and cellular
processes (used in ALL cells)
2
Energy is Stored Between
Phosphates of ATP
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules are:
• 1 adenine (nitrogenous base)
• 1 ribose sugar
• 3 phosphates
• A large amount of energy can be stored between
the second and third phosphate (high energy bond)
• Hydrolysis releases this energy, great for cellular work!
3
ATP is Like a Rechargeable Battery
• ATP releases energy by having its third phosphate
removed
• ATP then becomes ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
• To be used again, ADP will need to have a third
phosphate re-added so energy can be restored as ATP
• Cellular respiration is the process in which cells
reconvert ADP to ATP
4
Cellular Respiration: Forming ATP from
Glucose
• Glucose has a large amount of energy stored
within its covalent bonds
• Cellular respiration is the process of harvesting
energy from glucose and transferring this energy
into ATP molecules
• This is done by harvesting high energy electrons and
using THEM to build ATP
• A single molecule of glucose can
yield 32-34 ATP via cellular
respiration
5
NAD+ and FAD are Electron
Acceptors
• NAD+ and FAD are co-enzymes that can accept high
energy electrons and transport them within the cell
• When they receive the electrons, they also combine
with H+ to become NADH and FADH2
• Without NAD and FAD, electrons can't be harvested
+
6
Cellular Respiration Is a Three Step
Process
1. Glucose is broken in half in the cytoplasm and some
electrons are harvested (glycolysis)
2. The remaining pieces are brought into the
mitochondrion to continue the electron harvesting
process (Citric acid cycle)
3. The harvested electrons are used to eventually build
ATP molecules within the mitochondrion (electron
transport chain and chemiosmosis)
C6H12O6 6 O2 6 CO2 6 H2O ATP
Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water Energy
dioxide 7
7
Visual Overview of Cellular
Respiration
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
– – – – – –
6 NADH
2 NADH 2 NADH
– –
2 FADH2
Glycolysis 2
Acetyl Citric Electron
Glucose Pyruvates
CoA Acid Transport
Cycle Maximum
per
glucose:
2 2 About About
ATP ATP 28 ATP 32 ATP
by direct by direct
by ATP
synthesis synthesis
synthase
8
1st Step: Glycolysis (Breaking
Glucose)
• In glycolysis, a glucose
molecule is split in half
• Two pyruvate molecules
are the products
• This step takes places in
the cytoplasm of the cell
• No mitochondria needed
• No oxygen needed
9
Glycolysis Results in a Net Gain of 2
ATP
• Glycolysis requires 2 ATP,
but eventually synthesizes
4 ATP
• Thus, there is a net gain
of 2 ATP
• So, cells without
mitochondria or without
oxygen can still create a small
amount of ATP!
10
Glycolysis Creates 2 NADH
Molecules
• In addition to 2 ATP,
2 NAD+ molecules harvest
high energy electrons,
forming 2 NADH molecules
• These molecules will
shuttle the electrons into
the mitochondrion for the
third step
11
Glycolysis Overview: Breaking
Glucose
• One glucose molecule gets broken down and the
net gain is 2 ATP, 2 NADH and 2 pyruvates
12
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
– – – – – –
6 NADH
2 NADH 2 NADH
– –
2 FADH2
Glycolysis 2
Acetyl Citric Electron
Glucose Pyruvates
CoA Acid Transport
Cycle Maximum
per
glucose:
2 2 About About
ATP ATP 28 ATP 32 ATP
by direct by direct
by ATP
synthesis synthesis
synthase
13
Fermentatio
n
If no oxygen is available,
pyruvate enters
fermentation after
glycolysis instead of the
rest of the cellular
respiration stages (which
require oxygen)
(Audesirk et al., 2017)
Fermentation: Anaerobic
Respiration
• The main purpose
of fermentation is to revert
NADH back to NAD+ for reuse in
glycolysis
• Then the cell can continue with
glycolysis and make a bit of ATP
(which is better than nothing!)
• In fermentation, the pyruvates
from glycolysis are converted
into either lactate or ethanol
• These are by-products and must
be removed by the cell
15
Pyruvates Transfer to Mitochondria
• If oxygen is available in the cell, the pyruvates are
transferred into the mitochondria
• Before entering the Citric Acid Cycle, more high
energy electrons will be harvested in a preparatory
step
16
Pyruvates Break to form more
NADH
• When the pyruvates enter the mitochondrion, a
carbon is removed to form CO2, leaving acetic acid
• A molecule called Coenzyme A joins the acetic
acid to form acetyl-coA
• In this process, two electrons are donated to an
NAD + molecule to form more NADH
17
2nd Step: The Citric Acid Cycle
• In the 2nd step of cellular respiration, the citric acid
cycle, acetyl-CoA molecules are fully broken down
into 2 CO2 molecules
• More electrons are
harvested and stored in
NADH and FADH2
molecules
• 1 ATP is created
• Note: for one glucose molecule,
this would happen twice
18
Citric Acid Cycle Overview: Breaking
Acetyl Groups
• An acetic acid (2 carbon) molecule enters the cycle
and 2 CO , 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH are formed
2 2
• This occurs twice per glucose molecule
19
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
– – – – – –
6 NADH
2 NADH 2 NADH
– –
2 FADH2
Glycolysis 2
Acetyl Citric Electron
Glucose Pyruvates
CoA Acid Transport
Cycle Maximum
per
glucose:
2 2 About About
ATP ATP 28 ATP 32 ATP
by direct by direct
by ATP
synthesis synthesis
synthase
20
Recall: Mitochondria have Two
Membranes
• Mitochondria have an outer membrane and an
inner membrane
• The space between these membranes is called the
intermembrane space
• The space beneath the inner membrane is called
the mitochondrial matrix
21
Final Step: Electron Transport Chain
• NADH and FADH2 will drop off their electrons to
specialized protein channels in the inner
mitochondrial membrane
• As these proteins pass the electrons down the chain
(hence, electron transport chain), they use this
energy to form a concentration gradient for H+
22
Electron Transport Chain: Actively
Transporting H+
• As the electrons get
passed, they lose energy
• This energy is used to
actively transport H+ from
the mitochondrial
matrix into the
intermembrane space
• This transport causes a
concentration gradient to
form
23
Oxygen Accepts Electrons at end of
ETC
• Eventually, electron energy
is so low, only oxygen
would accept it (called
the terminal acceptor)
• Without oxygen pulling at
these electrons, this
process would stop!
• The oxygen with its extra
electrons combines with
two H+ to form water (H2O)
24
ETC Forms Electrochemical Gradient
Space
between
H H H H H
membranes
H
Electron H
carrier H H
3 H
Protein
complex
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
FADH2 FAD
H
Electron 2 1
flow 2
O2 2 H H2O
4
NADH NAD
1
H H H
H
Matrix Electron transport chain
25
ETC Forms Electrochemical Gradient
• Once enough H + have been pumped into the
intermembrane space, there is a strong gradient:
• High [H +] in the intermembrane space
• Low [H +] in the mitochondrial matrix
• The H+ will now
passively move back, if
given the right channel...
26
Chemiosmosis forms ATP via ATP
Synthase
• ATP synthase is a protein channel that
will allow H+ to travel back into the
mitochondrial matrix
• ATP synthase is ALSO an enzyme:
for every H+ that travel into matrix
(chemiosmosis), it synthesizes 1 ATP!
• ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis is how
90% of ATP is made (~28 ATP)!
27
ETC and ATP Synthase
Audesirk et al., 2017
ETC & ATP Synthase Overview:
Making ATP
• Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are donated to
ETC, which use this energy to pump H+ into
intermembrane space and create a gradient
• O2 eventually combines with these electrons and
two H+ to form H2O
• The resulting gradient
causes H+ to travel back
to matrix through
ATP synthase, which
makes ATP!
29
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
– – – – – –
6 NADH
2 NADH 2 NADH
– –
2 FADH2
Glycolysis 2
Acetyl Citric Electron
Glucose Pyruvates
CoA Acid Transport
Cycle Maximum
per
glucose:
2 2 About About
ATP ATP 28 ATP 32 ATP
by direct by direct
by ATP
synthesis synthesis
synthase
30