Fundamental of Metal

Working

Dr. Mukesh Kumar

Metallurgy and Materials Engineering.
COEP Technological University, Pune
 Metal Forming
Metal forming is a manufacturing process that involves changing
the shape and size of metal workpieces through plastic deformation
without removing material. The method relies on applying forces
beyond the metal's yield strength to achieve the desired shape while
retaining the material's integrity.

General classification of metal forming processes

 Classification of
Forming
Processes Based
on Applied Forces
• Direct Compression types
Process
• Indirect Compression
Process
• Tension Processes
• Bending Processes
• Shearing Processes
Direct compression
• In direct compression force is applied directly to the surface of
the workpiece, and the metal flows at right angles to the
compression direction.
• Forging: Dies compress the workpiece to achieve a desired
shape.
• Rolling: Workpiece compressed between rotating rolls to reduce
thickness.

(a) Forging (b) Rolling

Indirect Compression
• In this process, the Primary applied forces are frequently
tensile, but indirect compressive forces are developed because
of the workpiece’s reaction with the die and reach very high
values.
• Extrusion: Material forced through a die to create a cross-
section.
• Drawing: In this forming process, the diameter of a round wire
or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die opening

(a) Extrusion (b) Drawing

Tension-type, Bending, and Shearing Processes
• Tension-type: A metal sheet is clamped at both ends and
pulled over a mold to form curved parts
• Bending: In this, the sheet material is strained by a punch to
give a bend shape (angle shape) usually in a straight axis.
• Shearing: This is nothing but cutting of sheets by shearing
action

(a) Tension-type (b) Bending (c) Shearing

True Stress-True Strain Curve
• In engineering and materials science, the stress-
strain curve for a material gives the relationship
between stress and strain. That is obtained by
gradually applying load to a test sample and
measuring the deformation from tensile testing,
which the stress and strain can be determined.
• These curves reveal many of the properties of
materials, such as Young’s modulus, yield
strength, the ultimate tensile strength, and so on.
Engineering stress-strain curve
• Stress-strain curve for material is plotted by elongating
the sample and recording the stress variation with strain
until the sample fractures.
• The strain is set to the horizontal axis and stress is set to
the vertical axis.
• It is often assumed that the cross-section area of the
material does not change during the whole deformation
process.
• This is not true since the actual area will decrease while
deforming due to elastic and plastic deformation.
• The curve based on the original cross-section and gauge
length is called the engineering stress-strain curve, while
the curve based on the instantaneous cross-section area
and length is called the true stress-strain curve.
• For engineering stress, we assume the length and
diameter of the sample remain constant throughout
the whole experiment.

• Engineering stress is calculated by:

• Engineering strain is calculated by:

• True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-
sectional area (the changing area with time) of material.
Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the
original cross-sectional area of material.

Change in cross-section of the specimen during tensile test.

• The cross-section does not remain constant and will be

different from the given value of diameter. This stress is
called True Stress. Applied force is divided by the area of
the section at that instant.
 True Stress and Strain

• True stress and strain are different from engineering

stress and strain.
• In a tensile test, true stress is larger than engineering
stress and true strain is less than engineering strain.
The difference between the true and engineering
stresses and strains will increase with plastic
deformation. At low strains (in elastic region), the
differences between the two are negligible.
Stress/Strain curve of a tension test.
• True Stress (σt):
It is determined by the instantaneous load acting (F) on the
instantaneous cross-sectional area (A).

• True Strain (ε):

True strain is logarithmic and engineering strain is linear.
However it appears to be almost same for small deformation
owing to small values in Taylor expansion.

Integrate both sides and apply the boundary condition

where L is total length and Lo is original length.

The true stress and strain can be expressed by engineering stress and
strain.
(In case of tensile loading)
Constant volume relationship is expressed by:
 Flow curve:
• The typical stress–strain curve for most metals is divided into an elastic
region and a plastic region.
• In metal forming, the plastic region is of primary interest because the
material is plastically and permanently deformed in these processes.
• The typical stress–strain relationship for a metal exhibits elasticity below
the yield point and strain hardening above it.

Figure 1: True stress–

strain curve.
• In the elastic region, strain values are small, and true strain is nearly
equal to engineering strain for most metals of interest.
• The respective stress values are also very close to each other.
• The reason for these near equalities is that the cross-sectional area of the
test specimen is not significantly reduced in the elastic region.
• Hooke’s law can be used to relate true stress to true strain in elastic
region:

• The difference between the true stress–strain curve and its engineering
counterpart occurs in the plastic region.
• The stress values are higher in the plastic region because the
instantaneous cross-sectional area of the specimen.
• As strain becomes significant in the plastic region, the values of true
stress and strain and engineering stress and strain diverge. True stress
and strain can be related to the corresponding engineering stress and
strain respectively by
Figure 2: True stress–strain curve plotted on log–log scale.
• In plastic region,
• The metal is becoming stronger as strain increases. This is the property
called strain hardening or work hardening.
• It is a property that most metals exhibit to a greater or lesser extent.
• The true stress-strain curve in the plastic region, when plotted on a log-
log scale, forms a straight line, indicating a linear relationship between
true stress and true strain i.e.

• This equation is called the flow curve, and it provides a good

approximation of the behavior of metals in the plastic region, including
their capacity for strain hardening.
• The constant K is called the strength coefficient (Mpa), and it equals
the value of true stress at a true strain value equal to one. The parameter
n is called the strain hardening exponent, and it is the slope of the line
this .
 Flow Stress

• The flow curve indicates the flow stress of the metal- the strength
property that determines forces and power required to accomplish a
particular forming operation.
• Figure 2 indicates that as the metal is deformed, its strength increases
due to strain hardening.
• The stress required to continue deformation must be increased to match
this increase in strength.
• Flow stress is defined as the instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material to keep the metal ‘‘flowing.’’ It is the
yield strength of the metal as a function of strain, which can be
expressed:

Where Yf is flow stress (Mpa)

 Temperature in Metal Forming
The flow curve represents the stress-strain behavior of metals during plastic
deformation, especially in cold working.

Higher temperatures reduce strength and strain hardening, making forming

easier and increasing ductility.

Based on temperature, metal forming is classified into:

• Cold Working
• Warm Working
• Hot Working

Cold Working:
Performed at room temperature or slightly above.

Advantages:
1. Greater accuracy and closer tolerances.
2. Better surface finish.
3. Higher strength and hardness due to strain hardening.
4. Grain flow offers desirable directional properties.
5. Eliminates heating costs, increasing production rates.
6. Suitable for net shape or near-net shape processes.

•Disadvantages:

1. Higher forces and power required.

2. Clean starting surfaces needed.
3. Limited by ductility and strain hardening; annealing may be required for
further forming.

Warm Working:
Performed above room temperature but below recrystallization temperature
(typically above 0.3Tm, where Tm is the melting point).

Advantages:
• Lower forces and power required.
• More intricate geometries possible.
• Reduced or eliminated need for annealing.
Hot Working:
Performed above recrystallization temperature (typically above 0.5Tm and often
between 0.5Tm and 0.75Tm).

Advantages:
• Substantial plastic deformation possible.
• Lower forces and power required.
• Enables forming of metals that would fracture in cold working.
• Isotropic strength properties due to absence of oriented grain structure.
• No work hardening, maintaining ductility for subsequent processing.

Disadvantages:
• Lower dimensional accuracy.
• Surface oxidation (scaling) and poorer surface finish.
• Shorter tool life and higher energy costs due to heating.
Special Processes
Isothermal Forming:
1. Used for metals with high hot hardness (e.g., alloyed steels,
titanium, nickel alloys).
2. Tools and workpiece are preheated to the same temperature to
eliminate thermal gradients.

1. Advantages: Prevents surface cracking, irregular flow, and residual

stresses.
2. Disadvantage: Weakens tools and reduces tool life. Often the only
feasible method for forming certain high-strength materials
 Friction And Lubrication In Metal Forming

Causes of Friction in Metal Forming:

•Close contact between tool and work surfaces.
•High pressures that drive the surfaces together.

Undesirable Effects of Friction:

[Link] metal flow, causing residual stresses and defects.
[Link] forces and power required for operations.
[Link] tool wear, leading to loss of dimensional accuracy and defective
parts.

Severity of Friction and Tool Wear:

More severe in hot working due to harsher environments (high pressures
between a hardened tool and a soft workpiece, high plastic deformation of the
softer material, and high temperatures)
Differences from Mechanical System Friction:

Metal forming involves:

•High contact pressures.
•High temperatures (especially in hot working).
•Plastic deformation of the softer material.
Results in higher coefficients of friction compared to typical mechanical
systems.

Sticking Friction: Sticking in metalworking (also called sticking friction)

is the tendency for the two surfaces in relative motion to adhere to each
other rather than slide.

• Occurs when friction stress exceeds the shear flow stress of the
work metal.
• Leads to deformation by shear beneath the surface rather of
sliding at the surface.
• Prominent in processes like rolling.
Role of Lubricants in Metalworking:

Reduce harmful effects of friction, such as:

• Sticking.
• Forces, power, and tool wear.
• Improve surface finish and remove heat from tooling.

Considerations for selecting lubricants include:

• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, drawing, etc.).

• Hot or cold working conditions.
• Work material.
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals.
• Ease of application, toxicity, flammability, and cost.
Types of Lubricants:

Cold Working: Mineral oils, fats, water-based emulsions, soaps, and

coatings.

Hot Working:
• Sometimes performed dry (e.g., hot rolling of steel, aluminum
extrusion).
• Common lubricants: Mineral oils, graphite, and glass.
• Specific cases:
 Molten glass for hot extrusion of steel alloys.
 Graphite in water or mineral oil for hot forging.
 Hydrostatic Pressure

Definition: Hydrostatic pressure refers to the uniform compressive stress applied in

all directions on the material during metal forming operations.

Importance in Metal Forming:

• Increases material ductility by suppressing crack initiation and
propagation.
• Helps in deforming materials that are otherwise brittle under normal
conditions.
• Ensures more uniform flow of the material, reducing the likelihood of
defects like tearing or cracking.

Advantages:
• Reduces surface and internal defects.
• Enhances material flow, particularly in hard-to-deform materials.
• Increases the formability of sheets and other workpieces.
Limitations:

•Requires specialized equipment to generate and maintain high pressure.

•May increase the complexity and cost of the operation.

Hydrostatic Pressure in Hot vs. Cold Working:

• In hot working, it assists in reducing flow stress, making it easier to

deform the material.
• In cold working, it prevents cracking and enhances formability at
lower temperatures.

Hydrostatic pressure is a critical factor in achieving defect-free, high-

quality products in metal forming processes
 Workability
Definition: Workability is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation
without cracking or fracturing during forming processes.

Factors Affecting Workability:

• Material Properties:
Ductility, strain hardening, and grain structure significantly influence
workability.
• Temperature:
Higher temperatures improve workability by increasing ductility and reducing
strength.
• Stress State:
Compressive stress (e.g., hydrostatic pressure) improves workability by
suppressing crack formation.
• Deformation Speed:
Slower deformation rates allow time for dislocation movements, improving
workability.

In summary, workability ensures the successful shaping of materials in forming

operations without inducing defects like cracks, which is crucial for achieving desired
geometries and mechanical properties.