INTRODUCTION
TO INSECTS
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION
classification, where each larger group can be
broken down into small- er groups, somewhat
animals, including insects, fall into the
kingdom Animalia. Within Animalia are a
with backbones, including all fish, birds, and
mammals such as humans), Mollusca
etc), and Arthropoda, which includes insects
and related animals such as shrimp, crabs,
Arthropods are characterized by having a
segmented body that is groups into larger units
compound eyes, and a hardened exoskeleton.
The number of tagma, legs, and eyes can vary
example, spiders and other arachnids have
eight legs while crabs and other decapods have
INSECT
STRUCTURE
Insects have three main body parts: the head, thorax,
and abdomen. The head contains sensory organs such as
the eyes and antennae, as well as the mouthparts. The
three pairs of legs and, if they are present up to two pairs
wings. The abdomen contains the majority of the diges-
tive tract, as well as internal and external organs used for
reproduction.
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48. All insects possess a body plan that can be divided into
three parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen
151. Ocelli are also called ‘simple eyes’ and are used to detect
HEAD light and shadows. You can see three of them sitting on the top
of this wasp’s head, centered between her two compound eyes
body and includes the antennae, eyes, and mouthparts.
ANTENNAE
EYES
the head (unlike some other arthropods, such as cray-
tiny facets, although some subterranean species may fish and lobsters, which have two pairs). Antennae are
lack eyes altogether. Compound eyes are used to see the -
cals that we perceive as odors or taste. Some insects also
as dragonflies can have large compound eyes of many use their antennae to detect sound. The size and shape
thousands of facets while subterranean insects may have of the antennae and the number of antennal segments
compound eyes made of a few or even one facet, if they vary greatly between insect groups and can be used for
are present at all. Because each facet sees a slightly dif-identification.
ferent image of the world, insects can see movement and
moving objects much better than vertebrate eyes (which 100 133
is why it’s so hard to kill a house fly!).
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Antennae are important sensory organs and range widely in
their size and structure. Insects like this moth (left) and cedar
beetle (right) use long, fringed antennae to smell and locate
mates
Insects’ compound eyes range in size and are used to view the
world around them. Dragonf ly eyes (left) are very large and
composed of thousands of individual facets, while some insects,
MOUTHPARTS
like ground beetle (right) have relatively smaller eyes
between orders of insects and species. The mouthparts of
Many insects also have 1–3 simple eyes called ocelli -
(singular ocellus) on the top of their heads. Ocelli are pendages – the labrum, mandibles, maxilla, and labium
– that work together to process food. Insect mouthparts
compound eyes can. Rather, they are used to detect are grouped by function, including chewing, piercing,
siphoning, and lapping mouthparts, and are usually
indicate what an insect eats.
rhythm, and determining the season.
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Chewing mouthparts are used to tear, cut, or crush
food and deliver it to the mouth opening. Some insects
have large chewing mouthparts that they also use
when competing against other males of the same
species.
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160. This bumblebee is using siphoning mouthparts to access
the nectar deep inside of this thistle f lower
Lapping mouthparts have been modified to act like a
sponge to lap up liquids. For example, this is how house-
Many beetles, such as these two pictured, use their mandiblesflies and fruit flies eat.
to tear and cut food. Stag beetle males (left) rely on showing
off their oversized mandibles to find a mate
THORAX
Insects with piercing mouthparts have the same basic body and is located behind the head and in front of
components as insects with chewing mouthparts (i.e., the abdomen. The thorax of adult insects contains the
labrum, mandibles, maxilla, labium) except the parts
are modified into long, thin stylets that form a hollow of legs and the wings (if they are present). The thorax is
tube. Piercing mouthparts have evolved multiple times often stiff with many internal folds that the muscles used
within insects, and how and which parts of the mouth- to control the legs and wings attach to.
parts are modified varies between groups. Piercing
mouthparts allow the insect to insert the mouthparts
into plants or animals on which they feed. LEGS
Insect legs differ based on their mode of movement and
are often useful in identifying insects. Some examples of
different types of legs based on the insect’s movement
include walking, jumping, and swimming. Some legs
are adapted for specific uses such as carrying pollen or
or pads depending on their type of movement and the
environment they inhabit.
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1. Mosquito saliva is directed into the host as they are feed-
ing, which includes a mix of proteins that prevent blood from
clotting and are anesthetic so that you don’t feel their stylet
when they are probing you
Siphoning mouthparts are similar to piercing mouth-
parts. The basic parts of the mouthparts have been
draw in fluids such as nectar. In general, siphoning This shore f ly (left) has large, raptorial forelegs that aid in the
mouthparts are not stout enough to pierce into other capture of live prey. For grasshoppers (right), large, elongated
plants or animals. hindlegs are used for hopping and jumping
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WINGS
Many, but not all, adult insects have wings. Wings vary
greatly between orders and species of insects and the
venation of insect wings can aid in identification. Some
wings are highly modified for uses other than flying.
For example, the front wings of beetles, which are
called elytra, are hardened for protection of the hind
wings and body. The hind wings of flies are modified
into halteres, which act like gyroscopes and aid in bal-
ance during flight. The wings of moths and butterflies
are covered with minute scales which give the wings
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134. The internal anatomy of a scorpion f ly. Most insects share
the same basic internal structure, but this can vary depending
71 on their lifestyle
Beetle, f ly
and butterf ly
wings vary RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
dramatically
in form and
lack lungs and do not use blood to transport oxygen.
function
Instead, insects almost exclusively rely on the passive
diffusion of air through a network of hollow, internal
branching tunnels (known as the tracheal system) to
acquire oxygen. The tracheal system extends throughout
the insect’s body and even into the wings. The openings
ABDOMEN -
acles. Spiracles are found on the thorax and abdomen,
sect’s body located behind the thorax. The abdomen is although the number of spiracles may be reduced in
sometimes hidden by the insect’s wings while mov- some insects or completely lost (as is sometimes the case
ing or at rest. Much of the digestive system is located with aquatic insects that have gills). The spiracles can be
within the abdomen, along with the insect’s internal selectively opened or closed depending on the specific
and external reproductive organs. Adult females of
many groups of insects have an ovipositor located at
the rear of the abdomen that is used to lay eggs. In
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
modified into an ovipositor. Glands are common on backbone would be in animals with internal skeletons.
the abdomen used to produce various chemicals that The circulatory system is an open system with bodily
aid in communication. fluids flowing throughout the body, bathing the muscles
and organs (unlike the closed circulatory systems of
INTERNAL ANATOMY
through veins and arteries).
vertebrates we are most familiar with. A short de-
scription of the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and Instead of having ‘blood’, insects transmit nutrients, hor-
nervous systems is below. mones and cells through a fluid called hemolymph. He-
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molymph is mostly made of water but also includes a complete metamorphosis (holometaboly). Metamor-
small percentage of ions, carbohydrates, lipids, amino phosis is the term for the transition between stages of
acids, cells and other materials. The hemolymph flows insect development. Regardless of the type of devel-
freely throughout the body cavity to deliver nutrients opment, there is a general theme of progression from
and remove waste from the insect. It also has import- egg to immature to adult insect with fully developed
ant immune response functions, allowing for wounds legs, wings (if present), mouthparts, antennae, repro-
to be sealed by clotting, or by defending against inter- ductive organs.
nal parasites or other invaders. Insects don’t have a
centrally located heart like we do – instead, the hemo-
lymph flows from the efforts of a tunnel-shaped dorsal Adult insects can lay anywhere from a few eggs to
vessel, or heart, in the abdomen, that pulls hemolymphmany thousands of eggs. These eggs can take days to
in and pulses it forward towards the thorax and the months to hatch, with some eggs enduring the winter
head of the insect. From here, hemolymph spills out before hatching. Insects that have specific hosts as lar-
va are often laid on or near that host. The immature
insect’s main priority is to eat and grow. Immature
insects must molt to grow, with the stages between
toward the posterior end of the body again. molts being called instars.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
NO METAMORPHOSIS
the mouth of the insect to the abdomen where waste -
is excreted. Depending on their lifestyle, insects will phosis. These insects go from egg to immature to
have different specialized organs to cope with the adult with little change from the immature to adult
digestion of food, the absorption of nutrients and stages other than size. Immature insects that lack
waste excretion. Broadly speaking, however, insect metamorphosis look and function like the adults but
digestive systems include three functional regions - are slightly smaller and don’t have fully developed re-
the foregut holds the food, the midgut breaks down productive organs. Once the insect has functional re-
the food, and the hindgut processes and excretes the productive organs it is considered an adult, although
waste. it may continue to grow and molt. None of the groups
that are ametabolous possess wings as adults.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
79. Incomplete metamorphosis is a common insect lifestyle
called the ganglia (singular ganglion) running alongref lected in groups such as grasshoppers, cicadas, aphids and
the bottom (or venter) of the insect, which is differ- stonef lies
ent from vertebrate species where the
spine. Primitively, each segment of the
insect body has a separate ganglion and
associated nerves that act like control
switches for that segment. The insect
“brain” is really a fusion of the nerves
associated with the fused segments
antennae, possibly the eyes, and each of
the paired mouthparts.
INSECT GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
distinctive and aids in the classification
of insects. There are three main types of
insect development: no metamorphosis
(ametaboly), incomplete metamorphosis
(paurometaboly and hemimetaboly), and
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7. Complete metamorphosis is common to many insect groups including beetles, bees, butterf lies, and f lies.
INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS the soil, leaf litter, crevices of tree bark, between rocks,
Incomplete metamorphosis contains three stages: and sometimes in the open with excellent camouflage.
The pupa transitions into the adult insect that then
fications of incomplete metamorphosis: paurome- -
taboly and hemimetaboly. Immatures of paurome- tles, moths and butterflies are examples of insects that
tabolous insects are called nymphs, are terrestrial, undergo complete metamorphosis.
and usually resemble the adult insect but lack wings.
Grasshoppers and true bugs are examples of pau-
insects are usually called naiads, are aquatic, and do
not strongly resemble the adult insect. Dragonflies
and damselflies are examples of hemimetabolous
insects. Incomplete metamorphosis does not include
the pupa stage and nymphs transition directly to
INSECT ORDER
adults during the final molt.
DESCRIPTIONS
COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS The following summaries of currently accepted insect
orders include the scientific order name, the common
larva, pupa, and adult. The egg hatches into a larva name, examples of insects in the order, the type of
that eats, grows and molts into multiple instars, and
distinguishing characteristics of the order. With new
cocoons to pupate in. Pupae might also be surround- information, the way insects are classified is subject
ed with cut leaf pieces or other natural material. -
Pupae can be found in protected locations such as in betically.
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BLATTODEA COLEOPTERA
COCKROACHES, TERMITES BEETLES
• Chewing mouthparts • Chewing mouthparts
• Two pairs of wings • Two pairs of wings
tegmina (cockroaches)
• Wings, when present equal in size and
• Complete metamorphosis
shape (termites; only reproductives
have wings)
• Incomplete metamorphosis
All cockroaches (4,400 known species) and termites Coleoptera translates to ‘sheath wing’ and includes all
(3,000 known species) are classified in Blattodea. Thesebeetles, which is the largest insect order of them all con-
two insect groups often appear and behave very differ- taining over known 400,000 species. Beetles are found all
ently from one another. They were originally separated over the world and live in almost every habitat imag-
into two different orders until 2008, when we learned inable (except for in the sea or polar regions)! They are
from DNA analysis that termites arose from cockroach easy to identify from the hardened forewings, or ‘elytra’,
lineages. It may seem hard to believe, but termites andthat shield the hindwings which are protected at rest and
cockroaches share many similar behaviors. They both used during flight. Beetles can be beneficial predators,
(to varying degrees) engage in social behavior, subsist like lady beetles or ground beetles that eat insect pests
on decaying organic matter, and primarily live in wet, like aphids or caterpillars. However, some beetle species
warm environments. While most termites must work are themselves troubling insect pests, like the Colorado
cooperatively to care for their young and defend their potato beetle or root weevils, that eat up agricultural
crops. Charles Darwin was a famous beetle collector and
frequently referred to them in his writings on natural
selection and evolution.
benefit from cooperation with their fellow cockroaches.
A few groups of cockroaches are known to exhibit more
complicated social interactions, which are similar to
primitive termites.
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6 These termites (top left, 14 Beetles assume a diversity
top right) and cockroaches of shapes and size, but
(bottom) are both in the common to all beetles are
forewing, or ‘etlyra’ that
protect the hind wings
when not in use.
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DIPTERA
FLIES
• Mouthparts highly variable
• Piercing/sucking
• Sponging
• One pair of wings
• Complete metamorphosis
While an estimated 1,000,000 species are in the Diptera
order, we have only described about 125,000 of them
today. Common to all flies is their two wings and large
compound eyes. Flies are, without a doubt, one of the
most economically impactful insects in human society
today. Many flies including bee flies and hover flies are
often underappreciated as critical pollinators of wild and
managed ecosystems, and flies often serve as model or-
ganisms for scientific research. Mosquitos and houseflies
are well-known to transmit diseases such as malaria or
cholera (respectively) to millions of people every year.
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33 Flies display an astonishing
diversity of lifestyles and
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HYMENOPTERA
BEES, WASPS, SAWFLIES, ANTS
• Chewing mouthparts
lapping mouthparts
• Two pairs of membranous wings
• Complete metamorphosis
Bees, wasps, ants and sawflies are nested within the or-
der Hymenoptera, which is Latin for ‘membrane wing’, or
‘married wing’, depending on who you ask. Both inter-
pretations are accurate, as all winged insects in Hyme-
two pairs of membranous wings, in which
a series of hooks connect, or ‘marry’, the hind wings to
the fore wings for flight. Hymenoptera is a large order
(over 153,000 species) which plays all sorts of interesting
ecological roles in the environment and ranging from
to parasitoids to pollinators. Honey bees are
the most familiar species within the order, as they pro-
vide essential pollination services to fruit, nut and seed
crops around the world. However, most Hymenopterans
do not live socially like honey bees do: a lot of variety
ranging from completely solitary insects to fully eusocial
colonies.
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62 Hymenopterans are
extremely diverse
versity of beautiful
forms
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LEPIDOPTERA
MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES
• Siphoning mouthparts
• Two pairs of wings
About 180,000 species of moths and butterflies are in the
order Lepidoptera. ‘Lepidoptera’ is from Ancient Greek
and means scale wing, which refers to the flattened
hairs, or scales, that underly the beautiful, colorful and
patterned wings they are known for. Butterflies and
moths are often recognized as important pollinators
because the adults sip nectar from flowers. However,
these pollination services are generally not as efficient as
those provided by bees, wasps and flies, as they are less
effective at moving pollen between flowers. Many moth
and butterfly species share a tight evolutionary associa-
tion with specific host plants, which means their very ex-
plants available to them for growth and reproduction. In
Pennsylvania, the frosted elfin, the regal fritillary and the
monarch butterfly have all become ‘critically imperiled’
due to a lack of available native host plants (yellow and
wild indigo, violets, and milkweed, respectively) where
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GLOSSARY
ABDOMEN: Rear most body segment of an insect
NYMPH: The immature stage of an insect between the egg
COCOON: The case in which the pupa transforms into
and adult going through incomplete metamorphosis
an adult
OCELLUS: Simple eye
COMPOUND EYE: An eye composed of many small eyes
OVIPOSITOR: Part of the insect adapted for laying eggs
EXOSKELETON: The hard outer “skin” of the insect
PAR ASITE: An organism that lives on or in another organ-
HALTERE: Small knobbed or club-like vestigial hind
ism from which it feeds. Does not usually kill the host
wing of flies
PARASITOID: A larval insect that lives on or in another
H OS T: The living organism on which another organ-
organism from which it feeds, usually resulting in the
ism depends for survival. Monarch caterpillars rely
P R E DATO R : An animal that kills another animal for food
INSTAR: The stages of an insect between molts
PUPA: The insect stage between a larva and adult for
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT: Sustainable deci-
insects going through complete metamorphosis
sion-making process that utilizes different methods
SCLEROTIZATION: Hardening of the exoskeleton
process utilizes thresholds of acceptable damage,
a variety of practices to reduce pest risk, and still
THORAX: The middle body segment of an insect. The legs
and wings join the thorax
L ARVA: The insect stage between the egg and pupa for
insects going through complete metamorphosis
METAMORPHOSIS: The change in structure and size of
an insect as it develops
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