School of Medicine

Menelik II Referral Hospital

Department of Medical Biochemistry
BY
Ephrem Mamo

02/12/25 1
02/12/25 2
 Introduction
to Medical
Biochemistry and
Cell

02/12/25 3
Reference Books
Basic medical biochemistry =Marks’

The foundation of Biochemistry=Lehninger

Text book of Biochemistry=Thomas M.

Devlin

Illustrated Biochemistry=Harpers

Biochemistry=Lippincotts

Biochemistry =Lubert Stryer

02/12/25 4
 Objectives :
After the end of this session, students should
able;
To define Biochemistry
To explain the role of biochemistry in nursing,
public health mid wife and pharmacy
(professional health's)
 To list the building chemical elements of life
To explain the requirements for maximum
survival of life
Differentiate prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
List cell organelle and their function
List the makeup of membrane
02/12/25 5
 Course contents
 Introduction to Biochemistry
 Cell and cell organelle
 Water and PH
 Enzymes
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Vitamins
 Molecular Biochemistry

02/12/25 6
 Brainstorming

What is Biochemistry????
What do you expect from
Biochemistry???

02/12/25 7
 From the Greek word χημεία (khēmeia) meaning
"cast together" or "pour together“
Build, assemble, create,14 Century,
 Chemistry is the science of matter at the
atomic to molecular scale, dealing primarily with
collections of atoms, such as molecules, crystals, and metals.
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
(1743–94)
The Father of Chemistry

02/12/25 8
 Cont.…….
• Chemistry is the branch of natural science concerned
with the substances of which matter is composed, the
investigation of their properties and reactions, and the
use of such reactions to form new substances
• Biochemistry is the branch of science that deals with
the study of the chemical composition and process
in the body of living organisms.
• Medical Biochemistry is the branch of Biochemistry
that studies the chemical composition and process in
the human body

02/12/25 9
Introduction to Biochemistry
 The word biochemistry was first
introduced by a Germen Chemist , Carl
Neuberg, in 1903.

“Chemistry of Life”
1. Biochemistry
 Definition: The chemistry of life
 The science concerned with the chemical
basis of life.

The science concerned with the various
molecules that occur in living cells and
organisms and with their chemical reaction.

Anything more than a superficial
comprehension of life – in all its diverse
manifestation - demands a knowledge of
biochemistry.
Biochemistry

 Aim: to describe and explain,

in molecular terms, all chemical
processes of living cells
 Structure-function
 Metabolism and Regulation
 How life began ？
 Biochemistry
•More formally defined as:
–The science concerned with
–the chemical basis of life
• Studies chemical compositions and reactions
that occur in living matter during life process
•Explains two basic activities of living matter in terms of
biology and chemistry
 Organisms’ maintenance-the collection of processes to stay alive,
excluding production processes.

 Species perpetuations -(Contribution)- increase the number of

organism of species over time. 1
3
 Cont
…
• For an organism’s maintenance:-
Its cells should be able to:-
Synthesize different kinds of biomolecules to replace
the one degraded
Extract necessary energy from environment for
various cellular functions
 Biosynthesis rxns
 Active transport of materials
 Muscular contractions,…
14
 Three principle
areas of Biochemistry
1. Structural Chemistry:
Structure-function relationship for
all macromolecules
2. Metabolism:
Totality of chemical reactions that
occur in living organism, with
respective clinical correlation
3. Molecular Genetics:
How life is replicated.
Regulation of protein synthesis
02/12/25 15
 METABOLISM
 Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical
process taking place in a cell through a
series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that
constitute metabolic pathways.
 The precursor is converted into a product
through a series of metabolic
intermediates called metabolites.
 Metabolic intermediates is often
applied to the combined activities of all the
metabolic pathways that interconvert
precursors, metabolites, and products of
low molecular weight
02/12/25 17
 Metabolism is critical for life to;
 Obtain chemical energy

 Convert nutrient molecules into the cell’s own

characteristic molecules
 Polymerize monomeric precursors into macromolecules

 Synthesize and degrade biomolecules required for

specialized cellular functions

02/12/25 18
 Types of metabolism
1. Catabolism is the breakdown phase of
metabolism
 Organic nutrient (carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins) are converted into smaller, simpler end
products (such as lactic acid, CO2, NH3).
 Releases energy, in the form of ATP, GTP, NADH,
and FADH2
2. Anabolism is the biosynthesis phase
 Small, simple precursors are built up into larger
and more complex molecules, including lipids,
polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids.
 Require energy, generally in the form of ATP,
GTP, NADH, and FADH2
02/12/25 19
Cellular Metabolism
– Integrated network of all chemical reactions taking place in a cell
– Consists of two phases:
• Catabolism
• Anabolism
Catabolism
– Degradative phase of metabolism
– Sequence of oxidative chemical reactions
– Energy rich organic nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids ) degraded
– Free energy released is captured in the form of NADH, FADH2 
ATP & NADPH

20
 Cont
…
Anabolism
–Biosynthetic phase of metabolism
–Sequence of reductive reactions
–Small building block molecules (amino acids, fatty acids, mono-
saccharides and nucleotides) come together
–Cell’s macromolecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and
polysaccharides) are constructed
–Free energy is consumed in the form of
ATP and NADPH

21
Fig. Comparison of catabolic and anabolic pathways.
 METABOLIC REACTIONS
The chemical reactions of living systems
depend on transfer of manageable amounts
of energy from one molecule to another.
This transfer is usually performed by ATP.
ATP
ENERGY TRANSFER
All molecules (nutrient molecules included)
have energy stored in the bonds between
their atoms.
 Cont
Roles of cell Metabolism …
–To obtain chemical energy from energy rich nutrient
molecules
–To convert energy rich nutrient molecules into building
block precursor molecules
–To assemble building block molecules into the cell’s

macromolecules
–To synthesis molecules like hormones and co- enzymes for

specialized cellular functions

38
 In order to meet the requirements of life, we
metabolize our dietary components through four
basic types of Metabolic process :-
Fuel oxidative pathways,
 Glycolysis … Pyruvate …. Acetyl CoA … TCA …
Oxidative …Phosphorylation
 Fatty-acyl CoA transport … B-Oxidation … Acetyl-
CoA .. TCA … Oxidative Phosphorylation
Fuel storage and mobilization pathways,
Fat deposit, for energy muscle cell ad
normal cellular activities
An imbalance between Lipogenesis and
Lipolysis
Example:- In time of stress when the body
required energy, Faty acide released from
adipose cell or tissue for use.
Biosynthetic pathways, and
The sequence of enzymatic step in the
02/12/25 27
synthesis of a specific end product in living
 Organization of Life
 Elements
 Simple Organic Compounds
(Monomers)
 Macromolecules (Polymers)
 Supramolecular Structures
 Organelles
 Cells
 Tissues
 Organs
 Organ Systems
 Organisms
02/12/25 28
 Elements in life
 Most abundant: C, N, O, P, S, H

 Less abundant: Na, Mg, K, Ca, Cl

 Trace levels: Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn

 Many Important Biomolecules are

Polymers
– Condensation of monomers produces
polymers
02/12/25 29
 Macromolecules of Cells
 Macro = Large
 Four types of macromolecules in
cellular biology
1. Carbohydrates-Simple sugar
(glucose, fructose, and
galactose)
2. Lipids-Fatty acids and glycerol
3. Proteins-Amino acids
4. Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA)-
Nucleotides
02/12/25 30
 Bio-molecular Hierarchy
• First (1st) Major precursors Inorganic for
biomolecules
– Water and Carbon dioxide
– Inorganic nitrogen compounds - ammonium (NH4),
nitrate (NO3), and di-nitrogen (N2)
• Metabolic processes assimilate and transform them
through ever more complex levels of biomolecular
order
– Inorganic precursor Metabolite Building Block
molecules Macro molecules Supramolecular
Organelles Complex’s (in Eukaryotic cells only)
39
 Cont
• Metabolites: …
– Second levels of biomolecular hierarchy
– Simple organic compounds
– Intermediates in cellular energy transformation
– Intermediates in the biosynthesis of various sets of
building blocks.
• Building Block molecules:
– Third order molecules in bio-molecular hierarchy
– Are amino acids, mono-sugars, fatty acids & glycerol
and nucleotides.
– Assembled together covalently to their construct
respective macromolecules.
 Cont
• Macromolecules …
– Fourth order molecules in bio-molecular hierarchy
– Are proteins, polysaccharides, lipids & nucleic acids
• Proteins:
– Long polymers of amino acids
– Constitute the largest fraction of cells (15%) next to
water (70 %)
– Most versatile of all biomolecules
– Some have catalytic activity and function (e.g.,
Enzymes)
– Others serve as structural elements, receptors or
transporters (e.g., membrane proteins)
41
 Cont
• Nucleic Acids: …
– DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) & RNA (Ribonucleic
Acid)
– Polymers of nucleotides
– Accounts for 7 % (1% to 6% DNA:RNA) of total weight
of bacterial cell
– Store and transmit genetic information
– Some RNA molecules have structural and catalytic roles
(e.g. RNA in supramolecular complex & ribozymes)
42
 Cont
• Polysaccharides: …
– Polymers of simple sugars (e.g., glucose)
– Accounts for 3 % of total weight of bacterial cell
– Have two major functions
• As energy rich fuel
• As extracellular structural elements with specific
binding site for particular proteins/lipids
– Shorter polymers attached to lipids/proteins on
the cell surface serve as specific cellular signals
35
 Cont
…
• Lipids:
– Greasy or oily hydrocarbon derivatives
– Accounts for 2% of total weight of bacterial cell
– Serve as:
• Structural components of membranes
• Energy rich fuel stores
• Pigments
• Intracellular signals
36
Macromolecule Monomer
Carbohydrates Monosaccharide
Lipids Not always
polymers;
Hydrocarbon
chains
Proteins Amino acids

Nucleic acids Nucleotides

 Major Biomolecules and its functions

38
How do monomers form
polymers?
 In condensation
reactions (also
called
dehydration
synthesis), a
molecule of water
is removed from
two monomers as
they are
connected
together.
 Anabolic
 Building block  Macromolecule
 Simple sugar  Polysaccharide
 Amino acid  Protein
(peptide)
 Nucleotide
 RNA or DNA
 Fatty acid
Catabolic
 Lipid
 Cont
• Supra-molecular …
Complexes
– Fifth order molecules in bio-molecular hierarchy
– One or more classes of macromolecules come together
– E.g., Multifunctional enzyme complexes, ribosome,
chromosomes, cytoskeletal elements
– Serve important subcellular functions
– Interaction between macromolecules maintained by
non-covalent forces
• Hydrogen bonds
• Ionic interaction/electrostatic force
• Van der wall's force
• Hydrophobic interaction

41
 Cont
• Hydrogen bonds: …
– Interaction between hydrogen atoms and highly
electronegative atoms like nitrogen and oxygen
• Ionic interaction/Electrostatic force:
– Interaction between Oppositely charged molecules
• Van der Waal’s forces
– Interaction between electrically neutral molecules
• Hydrophobic interactions
– Interaction between non-polar molecules within
macromolecules.
46
Bio-Molecular 48
 Biochemistry Is Essential
to All Life Sciences
• Molecular Biology; The biochemistry of the nucleic acids
lies at the heart of genetics
• Physiology; the study of body function, overlaps with
biochemistry almost completely
• Immunology; employs numerous biochemical techniques,
and many immunologic approaches have found wide use by
biochemists.
02/12/25 44
 Conti…
• Pathology; Biochemical approaches are being used
increasingly to study basic aspects of disease, such as
inflammation, cell injury, and cancer

• Microbiology, zoology, and botany; employ biochemical

approaches almost exclusively

• Pharmacology; knowledge of biochemistry in particular,

most drugs are metabolized by enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

• In general Biochemistry is a common language for all life

science since life is fully dependent on biochemical
reactions
02/12/25
and processes. 45
 Biochemistry and Medicine are intimately related.
Biochemistry studies many aspects of health &disease
Health depends on a harmonious balance of biochemical
reactions occurring in the body.
Disease reflects abnormalities in Biomolecules,
Biochemical reactions, or Biochemical processes.

02/12/25 46
 Cont
…
• Biochemistry impacts the two majored concerns of
medicine:
– Understanding & maintenance of health
– Understanding & effective treatment of diseases
• Relationship of biochemistry and medicine is a
two-way street(Reciprocally benefited)
– Biochemical studies have made clear varies aspects of
health & diseases
– Study of varies aspects of health and disease have
opened new areas of biochemistry

47
Two-way street connecting biochemistry
and medicine.

Protein Vitamins:
Nucleic
C,D
Acid Aminoac CHO/
Nucleotid lipid
ids Insulin
es

Gout, Orotic Arterioscler

acid Pku,albini osis
urea ,Lesch- sm, DM,Anemia
Nyhan Cystinuria ,..
Sickle cell Scurvy &
Genetic anemia Rickets
disease
02/12/25 48
 Cont
…
• For Example:
– Knowledge of protein structure and function
(Biochemistry) => Normal hemoglobin and sickle cell
hemoglobin (Medicine)
– Analysis of sickle cell hemoglobin (Medicine) =>
Structure and function of normal hemoglobin and other
proteins (Biochemistry)

49
 So, Generally Most & Perhaps All Disease Has
Biochemical Basis
1. Physical agents:
2. Chemical agents,
3. Biologic agents:
4. Oxygen lack:
5. Genetic disorders: Congenital, molecular.
6. Immunologic reactions:
7. Nutritional imbalances:
8. Endocrine imbalances:
9. Stress, Sadness, emotional e. t. c.
 Some uses of Medical biochemical investigations and
laboratory tests in relation to diseases:-

1. To suggest rational treatment

2. To assist in the diagnosis

3. To act as screening tests

4. To assist in monitoring the progress

5. To assist in assessing the response of disease to therapy

 Cont
…
• Normal biochemical processes are the basis of healthy
of an individual
– Health is a state of “complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease and
infirmity” (WHO)
– Health is a condition in which all intra- and extracellular
chemical reactions are proceeding at rates proportionate with
the organism’s maximal survival in the physiologic state
(Biochemistry)
52
Scope of Biochemistry
•As wide as life itself
– Wherever there is life, chemical reactions &
processes are occurring.
•Concerned with the entire spectrum of life form

– Relatively simple viruses & bacteria to complex

human beings.

53
 Cell; Cell
Organelles and
Cell Membrane

02/12/25 54
 What is a cell?

Taken to its simplest form have

• A plasma membrane…

• Surrounding cytoplasm…

• Containing hereditary material.

 Cont.,,,,,,,

• A cell is
• A “bag” of chemicals.
• Capable of surviving and replacing itself.

• Inside the bag the chemicals differ in various ways from the
chemicals outside of the bag.

• The barrier is a very thin living membrane.

• All living cells are surrounded by a membrane.

Basic Characteristics of Cells

Basic building blocks of life

Smallest living unit of an organism
Functional unit of life
Every cell comes from pre-existing cells
 Cells specialize for particular purposes
Many can not be seen with the naked eye
Cellular features
•Size and shape of cells are related to
the cell’s special structure and functions
•Cells vary in size and shape
•Most cells are microscopic in size
•Size varies from the very small cells of
bacteria 0.2-5.0μm
Comparing Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells
Basic features of all cells:
 Plasma membrane
 Semi-fluid substance called
the cytosol
 Carry genes
02/12/25 58
 Cont…
•Life is based on
morphological and functional
units known as cells
– Two major classes:
•Eukaryotes (Greek: eu, good or true;
karyon, nucleus)
–Posses a membrane enclosed
nucleus & other organelles
•Prokaryotes (Greek: pro, before)
–Lack these organelles
59
 Prokaryotic Cell
Unicellular organisms, found in all
environments.
Without a nucleus; no nuclear membrane
No membrane-bound organelles;
Cell contains only one circular DNA
molecule in the cytoplasm;
Chromosome is naked (no histone);
Simple internal structure; and
Cell division by simple binary fission.
02/12/25 60
 Prokaryotic Cell

02/12/25 61
 Eukaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic cells are found in animals,

plants, fungi
Cell with a true nucleus,
Eukaryotic genome is more complex
than that of prokaryotes
Eukaryotic DNA is linear;
Eukaryotic DNA is complexes with
proteins called Histones;
Numerous membrane-bound
organelles;
Complex internal structure;
Cell division by mitosis and miosis.
02/12/25 62
 Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotes are generally more advanced than prokaryotes

02/12/25 63
64
Differences b/n Animal & Plant
Cells

65
 Sixth step of Bio-molecular Hierarchy

Organelles are specialized structures that perform various jobs

inside cells. The term literally means “little organs.” In the same way
organs, such as the heart, liver, stomach, and kidneys, serve specific
functions to keep an organism alive, organelles serve specific functions
to keep a cell alive

Organelles are small structures within the cytoplasm that carry

out functions necessary to maintain homeostasis in the cell. They are
involved in many processes, for example energy production, building
proteins and secretions, destroying toxins, and responding to external
signals.
The three major parts are in almost
every cell
The nucleus, cytoplasm and cell
membrane.
 The nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm by is
Protoplasm a nuclear
composedmembrane,
mainly of
 The cytoplasm is separated from the
surrounding
five by cell membrane
basic substances:

Water,
Electrolytes,
Proteins,
Lipids, and
02/12/25 67
Similarities among all types of cells
 All cells use nucleic acids (DNA) to store
information

Except RNA viruses, but not true cells
(incapable of autonomous replication)
 All cells use nucleic acids (RNA) to access
stored information
 All cells use proteins as catalysts (enzymes) for
chemical reactions

A few examples of RNA based enzymes, which may reflect
primordial use of RNA
 All cells use lipids for membrane components

Different types of lipids in different types of cells
 All cells use carbohydrates for cell walls (if
present), recognition, and energy generation
 Cont
• Organelles: …
– Sixth order in bio-molecular hierarchy of Eukaryotes
– Entities of considerable dimensions compared to the
cell itself
– Share two attributes in common:
• Cellular inclusions usually membrane bounded
• Dedicated to important cellular tasks
– Include:

- Nucleus - Vacuoles
- Mitochondria - Golgi apparatus
- Chloroplasts - Lysosomes
- Endoplasmic reticulum - Peroxysomes
47
 Plasma Membrane or Cell
Membrane
• Cell membrane is present in
both plant and animal cells.
• It is living, elastic and made
of proteins and lipids (fats).
• Its function is to provide a mechanical
barrier for the protection of the inner cell
contents and to regulate the movement
of molecules in and out of the cell.
• It is called a selectively permeable
membrane
02/12/25 70
 Functions of Plasma Membrane
Protective barrier
 Regulate transport in & out of cell (selectively permeable)
 Allow cell recognition
 Provide anchoring sites for filaments of cytoskeleton

Cell membrane separates living cell from nonliving surroundings

thin barrier = 8nm thick
Controls traffic in & out of the cell selectively permeable
allows some substances to cross more easily than others
hydrophobic vs hydrophilic
•Made of phospholipids, proteins & other macromolecules
71
 PhospholipidsPhosphate
• Fatty acid tails
– hydrophobic
• Phosphate group head Fatty acid
– hydrophilic
• Arranged as a bilayer

Aaaah,
one of those
structure–function
examples
 Phospholipid bilayer

polar
hydrophilic
heads

nonpolar
hydrophobic
tails

polar
hydrophilic
heads
 Nucleus
♯ Holds DNA and controls cell
functions.
♯Brain" of the cell:
♯The nucleus is the largest
cellular organelle in animals .
♯The average diameter of
approximately 6 micrometers
02/12/25 74
 Cytoplasm and its organelles
The cytoplasm is filled with both minute
and large dispersed particles and
organelles.
The clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm
in which the particles are dispersed is
called Cytosol;
 This contains mainly:
02/12/25
 Dissolved proteins, 75
 Ribosomes

Found in both Prokaryotes and

Eukaryotes
The machine for proteins
synthesis via translation
Each cell contains thousands
Made up of RNA and protein
02/12/25 76
 Endoplasmic
Reticulum
The organelle of cells in eukaryotic
organisms that forms an interconnected
network of tubules, vesicles
and cisternae.
Rough endoplasmic reticula
Smooth endoplasmic reticula

02/12/25 77
Rough endoplasmic reticula:
A network of interconnected
membranes forming channels in the cell.
Covered with ribosomes (causing the
"rough" appearance)
Site for protein synthesis processing

02/12/25 78
 Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticula:
A network of interconnected
membranes .
 A site for synthesis and metabolism of
lipids.
Also contains enzymes for detoxifying
chemicals including
02/12/25 79
 Golgi Complex

 The Golgi apparatus, found in

most eukaryotic cells .
Processes proteins, primarily
Glycosylation.
 Important in the processing of
proteins for secretion.
 Important in modifying, sorting, and
02/12/25 80
 Lysosomes

Lysosomes serve as the intracellular

“digestive system”.
Lysosomes containing powerful
hydrolytic enzymes .
Capable of digesting and removing
unwanted cellular debris

02/12/25 81
 Peroxisomes

 Are small organelles present in eukaryotic

cell
 formed by budding from smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 Contain catalase enzyme to detoxified toxic
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
 β-oxidation for very long chain fatty acids
02/12/25 82
 Vacuoles

•Membrane surrounded "bags" that contain water &

storage materials in plants

02/12/25 83
 Cytoskeleton
• Arrays of protein filaments in cytosol. Gives cell its
shape & provides basis for movement.

E.g. Microtubules and Microfilaments

21
 Mitochondria
♯A mitochondrion contains outer and
inner membranes
♯ The mitochondria, “powerhouses” of
the cell
♯ Perform the oxidative phosphorylation
via ETC
♯ Contains its own DNA
02/12/25 85
 Cont
…
• Life can be classified into two broad categories
based on their energy and carbon sources
– Phototrophs
– Chemotrophs
(1)Phototrophs
– Trap & use sunlight as energy sources
– Are of two types (based on carbon sources):
• Autotrophs
– Obtain all needed carbon from CO2
• Hetrotrophs
–Obtain all needed carbon from organic compoun
 Cont
(2) Chemotrophs …
– Obtain energy from chemical compounds (either organic
or inorganic)
– Obtain all needed carbon from organic compounds
– Are of two types (based on natureof
energy source)
• Lithotrophs
– Oxidize inorganic fuels
• Organotrophs
– Oxidize organic fuels

87
88
 Summary
Cytosol: Involved in protein synthesis, purine
synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, HMP shunt. Lipid
metabolism- FA synthesis, cholesterol synthesis, partly
heme synthesis, urea formation and pyrimidine
synthesis.
Mitochondria: Power house of the cell, ETC and
ATP synthesis, TCA cycle, β-oxidation of fatty acids,
ketone body formation, partly heme synthesis, urea
synthesis, gluconeogenesis, pyrimidine synthesis.
Nucleus: DNA replication and transcription.
Endoplasmic reticulum: Biogenesis of proteins,
lipoproteins, drug metabolism, ethanol oxidation,
synthesis of cholesterol (partly).
Golgi body: Maturation of synthesized proteins,
protein
02/12/25
sorting, packaging and secretion. 89
 Any
Question?

02/12/25 90