Canal Irrigation

System
UNIT II
Alluvial and Non-alluvial canal
• The soil which is formed by the continuous
deposition of silt from the water flowing through
a given area, is hence, called the alluvial soil.
• Mountainous regions may go on disintegrating
over a period of time resulting in the formation
of a rocky plain area called non-alluvial area.
Irrigation canals can be aligned in any of
the following three ways
(i) watershed canal or ridge canal.
(ii)contour canal ; and
(iii)side-slope canal.
Ridge Canal
Contour Canal
Side Slope Canal
Canal Distribution System
Irrigation Schemes
Curves in Canal
Gross Command Area (G.C.A.)
• It is the total area, bounded within the irrigation boundary of a project, which
can be economically irrigated without considering the limitation of the
quantity of available water.
• It includes the cultivable as well as the un-cultivable area. For example,
ponds, residential areas, roads, reserved forests, etc. are the uncultivable
areas of the gross command area.
Culturable or Cultivable Command Area (CCA)
• Culturable area is the cultivable part of the gross command area, and
includes all land of GCA on which cultivation is possible.
• It will, thus, include pastures and fallow lands, which can -be-made
cultivable.
Intensity of Irrigation
• This percentage of CCA proposed to be irrigated
in a given season is called the intensity of
irrigation of that season, or seasonal intensity of
irrigation.
• Say for example, the sanctioned intensity of
irrigation under Bhakra canal system is only
27.6% for Kharif season, and 34.4% for Rabi
season
Net and Gross Sown Areas
Sometimes, two crops in two seasons are grown during a particular year on the
same area. Hence, such an area will be sown more than once during a given
year. If this area is added to the area which is sown only once (and called the net
shown area), then we get what is known as. the gross sown area, or the gross
cropped area.
Hence, Gross cropped or Gross sown area (during a year) = Net cropped area,
i.e. area sown once in a year + Area shown more than once during the same
year
Net and Gross Irrigated Areas.
Based on the above analogy, the area which is irrigated once during a year is
called the net irrigated area, and when to this is added the area irrigated more
than once, we obtain the gross irrigated area.
Gross irrigated area (in a given year)
= Net irrigated area (i.e. area irrigated once in ,a year) + Area irrigated more
than once during the same year.
Area to be Irrigated
The area proposed to be irrigated in any one crop season or over any given year, is called the area to
be irrigated in that season or the year, respectively.
It is obtained by multiplying CCA by the seasonal or annual intensity of irrigation, as the case may
be.
The areas to be irrigated are usually worked out separately for each crop season, because the water
requirement of the crops of two seasons are quite different.
Time Factor.
To check the dangers of over irrigation, leading to water-logging and salinity, no distributary is
allowed to operate on all the days during any crop season. The ratio of the actual operating period of
a distributary to the crop period is called the time factor of the distributary.
For the Bhakra canal system, for example, the time factors for Kharif and Rabi seasons are fixed at
0.80 and 0.72, respectively, which means that each distributary would receive its full supply for a
period of 0.80 x 180 = 144 days, and 0.72 x 180 = 129 days, respectively, in each crop season ,of
180 days.
For computing the design capacity of a distributary, therefore, the computed water requirement (for
the crops proposed to be grown and irrigated by that distributary) should be divided by the time
factor, since this factor is less than 1.
Capacity Factor.
The capacity factor for a canal is the ratio of the mean supply discharge in a canal during a period to its
designed full capacity.
Since canals have to run almost to their full designed capacities during Kharif (summer) season, this
value usually varies from 0.9 to 0.95 for Kharif season.
However, since water requirement during Rabi (winter) season reduces to about 2/3rd times the full
supply, the capacity factor usually varies from 0.60 to 0.70 for Rabi season.
To improve this factor during Rabi season, the cropped area in Rabi season is, hence, usually increased.
Full supply coefficient.
Full supply coefficient is the design duty at the head of the canal.
In other words, the number of hectares irrigable per cumec of the canal capacity at its head, is known
as the full supply coefficient of the canal.
It can hence, be represented by the equation :
Full supply coefficient = Area estimated to be irrigated during base period /Design full supply discharge
at the head of the canal
This factor is also called the Duty on capacity.
Nominal Duty.
It is the ratio of the area actually irrigated by the cultivators to the mean supply discharge let out from
the outlet of the distributary over the crop period. For example, let x cumec of water is released daily
from the outlet of a distributary for 100 days (says) in a total crop period of 125 days (say). Then, the
mean supply discharge over the crop period will be x x 100/125 =0.8x (cumec).
If the area of crop irrigated by this discharge is A hectares, then the nominal duty will be given as
Nominal duty — A(ha) /0.8x (cumec)=1.25A/X ha/cumec.
 Losses in water in canals

During the' passage 'of water from the main canal to the outlet at
the head of the watercourse, water may be lost either by
evaporation from the surface or by seepage through the
peripheries of the Channels.
Evaporation
• The-water lost by evaporation is generally very small, as
compared to the water lost by seepage in certain channels.
• Evaporation losses are generally of the order of 2 to 3 per cent
of the total losses.
• In summer season these losses may be more but seldom exceed
about 7% of the total water diverted into the main canal.
Seepage
There may be two different conditions of seepage
Percolation
Absorption
The seepage losses depend upon the following factors
• Type of seepage, i.e. whether 'percolation' or 'absorption'.
• Soil permeability
• The condition of the canal ; the seepage through a silted
canal is less than that from a new canal.
• Amount of silt carried by the canal ; the more the silt, lesser
are the losses.
• Velocity of canal water ; the more the velocity, the lesser will
be the losses.
• Cross-section of the canal and its wetted perimeter.
The amount of Water which can be diverted from the river into the
main canal depends upon,
(i) The water available in the river ;
(ii) The capacity of the main canal ; and
(iii)the share of other canals taking off from the river.
• The method of distribution of available supplies into various canals of
a canal system is called the canal regulation.
• Obviously, when there exists a significant demand of water anywhere
in the command area of a canal, the said canal has to be kept flowing
• The canal can, however, be closed, if the water demand falls below a
specified quantity.
• The canal shall be reopened again when the water demand exceeds
the specified minimum quantity.
• Normally, there always exists a demand in some part of the
command area of any major canal. Such major canals can, hence, be
closed only for a very small period (say hardly for three to four weeks
in a year). These canals, thus run almost continuously. They may,
however, carry discharges much less than their full capacity, either
when there is less demand, or when the available supplies are
• When the demand is less, only the distributaries which
need water are kept running, while others (including
those which have very little demand) are closed.
• In case of higher demand but insufficient supplies,
either all the smaller channels are made to run
simultaneously and continuously with reduced
supplies ; or some channels are closed turn by turn
and the remaining ones are made to run to their full or
near-full capacities.
In case of higher demand but insufficient
supplies
(a)All channels are to run continuously with
reduced supplies
(b) A fewer channels will run with their FSL.
Warabandi
Warabandi is an integral management system for conveying and distributing
irrigation water from the source.(river or reservoir) down to the farm gates
(i.e. nakkas) of various land holders, so as to ensure supplies up to the tail
end of the command area.
The entire water conveyance ,system is divided into the following three
categories :
(i) Primary distribution system ;
(ii) Secondary distribution system ; and
(iii) Tertiary distribution system.
Conveyance of water from the source into the main canal, feeding two or
more branch canals (which may operate by rotation) and may not carry the
total required supply, constitute what is known as the primary distribution
system. This primary distribution system runs throughout the irrigation
season with varying supply..
The secondary distribution system consists of a large number of
distributaries which run by rotation but usually carry full supply. They are fed
by the branch canals of the primary distribution system. The water is finally
released from the. distributary into the water courses through the outlets
(modules):The secondary distribution system ends at this outlet point.
The water flowing into the water course or it branches, from an outlet of a
distributary, is finally allocated to various fields situated along the water
course by a time roster. This is the tertiary distribution system.
 Sediment Transport
Whenever water flows in a channel (natural or artificial), it tries to scour its surface.
Silt or gravel or even larger boulders are detached from the bed or sides of the
channel. These detached particles are swept downstream by the moving water. This
phenomenon is known as Sediment Transport.
Importance of Sediment Transport
(i) The phenomenon of sediment transport causes large scale scouring and siltation
of irrigation canals, thereby increasing their maintenance. Many poorly designed
artificial channels get silted up so badly, that they soon become inoperable,
causing huge economic loss to the public exchequer. The artificial channels
should; therefore, be properly designed, and should not fail to carry the sediment
load admitted at the canal headworks.
(ii) The design and execution of a flood control scheme is chiefly governed by the
peak flood levels, which, in turn, depend upon the scour and deposition of
sediment. Firstly, the bed levels may change by direct scouring or deposition of
sediment, and thereby changing the flood levels. Secondly, the scouring and
silting on the river banks may create sharp and irregular curves, which increase
the flow resistance of the channel, and thereby, raising the flood levels for the
same discharge
(iii) Silting of reservoirs and rivers is another important aspect of sediment transport.
The storage capacity of the reservoir is reduced by its silting, thereby, reducing
its use and life. Natural rivers used for navigation are frequently silted up,
reducing the clear depth (draft) required for navigation. Sediment deposited in
these rivers and harbours may often require costly dredging. Sediment transport,
thus, poses numerous, problems, and is a subject of great importance, and
Sediment Load
• The sediment in a canal is a burden to be borne
by the flowing water, and is, therefore,
designated as sediment load.
• Bed load is that in which the sediment moves
along the bed with occasional jumps into the
channel. While, the suspended load is the one in
which the material is maintained in suspension
due to the turbulence of the flowing water.
 Bed Formation
The channel bed may be distorted into various shapes by the moving
water, depending upon the discharge or the 'velocity of the water.
At low velocities, the bed does not move at all, but it goes on assuming
different shapes as the velocity increases. Let us see what happens to a
channal bed made of fine sand (lesser than 2mm dia) when the velocity
is gradually increased in steps.
When the velocity is gradually increased, then first of all, a stage is
reached, when the sediment load comes just at the point of motion. This
stage is known as threshold stage of motion. On further increase of
velocity, the bed develops ripples of the saw-tooth type
Such ripples can also be seen in sand on any beach.
As the velocity is increased further, larger periodic irregularities appear,
and are called Dunes. When they first appear, ripples are superimposed
on them. But at still higher velocities, the ripples disappear and only the
dunes are left.
Mechanism of Sediment
transport
 Design of stable channels
• So long as the average shear stress () acting on
the boundary of an alluvial channel is less than
the critical shear stress (); the channel shape
remains unchanged, and hence the channel can
be considered of rigid boundary.
• in India, alluvial channels are designed on the
basis of hypothetical theories given by Kennedy
and Lacey. These theories are based on
experiments and experience gained on the
existing channels over the past many years.
Therefore, while thinking to design a properly
functioning channel, one must think to design such a
channel in which neither silting nor scouring takes
place. Such channels are known as stable channels or
regime channels.
Regime Channels
A channel is said to be in a state of 'Regime', if the
flow is such that 'silting and scouring' need no special
attention. Such a state is not easily possible in rivers,
but in artificial channels, such a state can be
obtained by properly designing, the channel.
The basis for designing such an ideal, non-silting,
non-scouring channel is that, whatever silt has
entered the channel at its head is kept in suspension,
so-that it does not settle down and deposit at any
point of the channel. Moreover, the velocity of the
water should be such that it does not produce local
silt by erosion of channel bed and slopes.
Kennedy's Theory (1895)
• R.G. Kennedy, an Executive Engineer of Punjab P.W.D, carried out extensive
investigations on some of the canal reaches in the upper Bari Doab Canal
System. He selected some straight reaches of the canal section, which had not
posed any silting and scouring problems during the previous 30 years or so.
• From the observations, he concluded that the silt supporting power in a channel
cross-section was mainly dependent upon the generation of the eddies, rising to
the surface.
• These eddies are generated due to the friction of the flowing water with the
channel surface. The. vertical component of the eddies try to move the sediment
up, while the weight of the sediment tries to bring it down, thus keeping the
sediment in suspension.
• So if the velocity is sufficient to generate these eddies, so as to keep the
sediment just in suspension, silting will be avoided. Based upon this concept; he
defined the critical velocity () in a channel as the mean velocity (across the
section) which will just keep the channel free from silting or scouring, and
related it to the depth of flow by the equation
CVR
Design procedure
• Determine the critical velocity by assuming a trial
depth, and then determine area by dividing discharge
by velocity.
• Then determine channel dimensions.
• Finally, compute the actual mean velocity (V) that will
prevail in the channel of this cross-section, by using
Kutter's formula, Manning's formula, etc.
• If the two velocities and V work out to be the same,
then the assumed depth is all right, otherwise change
it and repeat the procedure, till V and become equal.
1. Value of Manning’s roughness coefficient
increases as we move from poor to good channel
condition
(a) True
(b) False
The velocity that is sufficient to keep the sediments in
suspension is called
(a) Critical Velocity Ratio
(b) Critical velocity
(c) Incipient Velocity
(d) All of the above
• Design an irrigation channel to carry 50 cumecs of
discharge. The channel is to be laid at a slope of I in
4000. The critical velocity ratio for the soil is I.I. Use
Kutter's rugosity coefficient as 0.023
 Lacey’s Theory
Lacey, an eminent civil engineer of U.P. litigation
Department, carried out extensive investigations on the
design of stable channels in alluviums
LaCey's regime channels
• It was stated by Kennedy that a channel is said to be
in a state of 'regime' if there is neither silting nor
scouring in the channel.
• Lacey came out with the statement that even a
channel showing no silting no scouring may actually
not be in regime.
• He, therefore, differentiated between three regime
Conditions :
(i) True regime
(ii) Initial regime and
True regime
• A channel shall be in regime, if there is neither silting nor scouring.
• For this condition to be satisfied, 'the silt load entering the channel
must be carried through, by the channel section.
• Moreover, there can be only one channel section and one bed slope
at which a channel carrying a given discharge and a particular
quantum and type of silt, would be in regime. Hence, an artificially
constructed channel having a certain fixed section and a certain
fixed slope can behave in regime only if the following conditions are
satisfied :
(i) Discharge is constant ;
(ii) Flow is uniform ;
(iii) Silt charge is constant ; i.e. the amount of silt is constant ;
(iv) Silt grade is constant ; i.e., the type and size of silt is always the
same, and
(v) Channel is flowing through a material which can be scoured as
easily as it can be deposited (such soil is known as incoherent
alluvium*), and is of the same grade as is transported
 Initial regime and Final regime
• When only the bed slope of a channel varies due to dropping of silt, and its
cross-section or wetted perimeter remains unaffected, even then the channel
can exhibit 'no silting no scouring' properties, called Initial regime.
• Thus, when water flows through an excavated channel with somewhat narrower
dimensions and defective Slopes, the silt carried by the water may get dropped
in the upper reaches, thereby increasing the channel bed slope. Consequently,
the velocity is increased, and a non-silting equilibrium is established, called
'Initial regime'.
• Sides of such channels are subjected to a lateral restraint. could have scoured if
the bank soil would have been a true alluvium. But in practice, they may either
be grassed or be of clayey soil, and therefore, they may not get eroded at all.
Hence, such channels Will exhibit 'non-silting, non-scouring', properties; and
they will appear to be in regime ; but in fact, they are not.
• They have achieved only a working stability due to the rigidity of their banks.
Their slopes and velocities are higher and cross-sections narrower than what
would have been if the sides were not rigid. Such channels are termed as
channels in initial regime, and regime theory is not applicable to them, as they
are intact, 'not the channels in alluvium. But, if there is no resistance from the
sides, and all the variables such as perimeter, depth, slope, etc. are equally free
to vary and finally get adjusted according to discharge and silt grade, then the
channel is said to have achieved permanent stability, called Final Regime.
• Regime theory is applicable to such channels only, and not to all regime
• The second point, which Lacey argued was that the sediment
is kept in suspension . not only by the vertical component of
the eddies which are generated on the channel bed but also
by the eddies generated on the sides of the channel.
• Kennedy had neglected the eddies that are generated on the
sides of the channel, by presuming that such eddies has
horizontal movement for greater part, and, therefore, do not
have sediment supporting power. Lacey thus, argued that the
silt supporting power of a channel is proportional to the
wetted perimeter of the channel and not to its width, as was
presumed by Kennedy.
• Thirdly, Lacey argued that the grain size of the material
forming the channel is an important factor, and should need
much more rational attention than, what was given to it by
Kennedy (different values of critical velocity ratio(m) for
different types of soils).
• He, therefore, introduced a term called silt factor (f) in his
 Maintenance of Irrigation
Canal
Various problems which are posed by the irrigation
canals during their use, and as such need constant
attention, are :
(i) silting of canals ;
(ii) weed and plant growth,
(iii)failure of weaker banks ;
(iv)hollows created by burrowing animals, crabs, etc. in
the filled up sections, causing seepage and piping ;
(v) canal breaches due to piping, overflowing of canal,
etc.
 Canal Lining
• By lining the canal, we mean that the earthen surface of the
channel is lined with a stable (inerodible) lining surface, such as
concrete, tiles, asphalt, etc.
• Depending upon the type of lining adopted, the seepage losses
can be reduced to 2%-5% of their original values by lining the
canals.
Advantages of Lining
• Seepage control
• Prevention of water logging
• Increase in canal capacity
• Increase in command area
• Reduction in maintenance cost
• Elimination of flood danger